ODI Global

Supporting just transitions through social protection

Anna McCord — 2026-05-06

This briefing paper looks at how philanthropies can contribute to ensuring a just transition to net zero through the extension of social protection to address poverty and income security. It describes the concept of the ‘just transition’ and how social protection can contribute to it, identifies the main constraints to extended social protection provision, and identifies key roles that philanthropies could play to promote an effective and sustainable social protection contribution to the just transition.

Financing climate-responsive social protection

Vikrant Panwar — 2026-04-14

This brief examines how financing for climate-responsive social protection (CRSP) needs to evolve under rising climate and transition pressures, and how philanthropy could enable and catalyse such change. The focus is on making financing systems more reliable, timely and adequate in low- and middle-income countries where demand for social protection is rising, fiscal space remains constrained and external finance is unpredictable and costly. The challenge today is not only one of resource gaps but of how CRSP financing is structured, coordinated and deployed.

Transforming social protection for irreversible climate change-induced loss and damage

Shandelle Steadman — 2026-04-14

This briefing paper by examines the role of social protection systems in responding to irreversible climate-induced loss and damage and highlights the key role philanthropy can play in transforming these systems to better support populations that can no longer adapt to the impacts of climate change.

Food prices in Mali and Sudan

Steve Wiggins — 2025-12-27

From early 2020 prices of cereals, fuels and fertiliser on world prices began to rise, beginning a cycle that would peak in mid-2022, by which time many prices had doubled or more. At the time, much concern was expressed that increases in prices on world markets would transmit to domestic markets in the Global South, driving up local food prices, and causing distress to people on low incomes.

SPARC-IDRC carried out a study in 2023 to see what had happened to staple food prices in Mali and Sudan between 2019 (pre-pandemic) and mid-2022, with what consequences, and with what public responses. That research reported cereal prices in both countries had doubled or more since early 2020. Price rises were (very) largely a result of domestic drivers, above all poor harvests and, in Sudan, hyperinflation. Most people living on low incomes tried to economise by cutting out costly foods and trying to earn more by taking on more work. Public responses were inadequate to mitigate hardship.

This report extends the analysis in the two countries from 2023 to mid-2025, examining subsequent price changes and their drivers, effects on vulnerable people, and public responses.

Access to land and resilience for female Sundanese refugees in Chad

Camille Laville — 2025-12-24

In 2025, over a million Sudanese refugees, mostly women and children, live in eastern Chad, some for over 15 years. The Chad government and partners aim to support their autonomy by providing land access, but this is mainly through agreements with host communities with unclear conditions.

This study explores Sudanese refugee women’s land access in eastern Chad, analysing host community perceptions. It examines systemic barriers, women’s social characteristics, land access, and opportunities for improved coordination.

Data from 30 focus groups with over 300 people from refugee camps in February 2025, supplemented by literature reviews, national budget studies, and interviews with stakeholders, reveals:

- Chad and partners lack clear objectives for women’s land access, hindering their commitment.

- Refugees and hosts recognise that pregnant or single refugee women with young children or disabled dependents have less land access. Being young with close family support, especially adolescents, is seen as a key advantage. However, the commodification of land exacerbates gender inequalities by preventing refugee women without male guarantors from accessing land. This confusion between access and use of land also creates tension between communities, hindering peaceful coexistence and village development.

Policy implications include strengthening the integration of land tenure issues for host communities and refugees in national climate strategies. Attention should be paid to inequalities in access linked to household composition in national strategies for the East of Chad, raising awareness among local authorities, and establishing legal mechanisms to address gender-based barriers. Support for equitable access to seeds and agricultural tools adapted to gender and local realities is also crucial to avoid adverse local effects and supply disruptions. Prioritising areas where refugee camps encroach on host lands or are affected by land commodification in rehabilitated land donation programs is essential. A joint assessment of road and water infrastructure with host communities is needed to better target investments and reduce feelings of injustice.

This report is also available in French.

Supporting pastoralists through AfriScout Steward and Regen

Miguel Uribe — 2025-12-23

Pastoralism is an increasingly precarious livelihood in East Africa’s arid and semi-arid regions due to climate-related disasters, armed conflict, livestock diseases, macroeconomic shocks and growing populations. Consequently, there is a critical need for innovations that enhance pastoralists’ resilience and adaptability.

The AfriScout (AS) programme – devised and implemented by Global Communities – supports pastoralists through two intervention models: AfriScout Steward, a digital app implemented in Kenya that provides satellite and crowd-sourced information on rangeland conditions to inform grazing and migration decisions; and AfriScout Regen, which provides more intensive and localised grazing support at a community level in Ethiopia using a unique version of the adaptive multi-paddock (AMP) approach within defined regenerative grazing units (RGU).

Causal Design conducted an impact evaluation (IE) to understand the causal impacts of the two AS models (Causal Design, 2025). Primarily, the evaluation sought to identify the attributable outcomes of AS on pastoralist decision-making and subsequent impacts on rangeland conditions and herd conditions. This SPARC Technical Report summarises key findings and evidence-based recommendations for AS implementers and policy-makers.

Agro-pastoralists' adaptation to flooding and conflict in Gogrial East, Warrap State, South Sudan

Chol Peter Bak — 2025-12-18

Agro-pastoralist communities in South Sudan face increasing challenges from climate change and inter-ethnic conflict. In Gogrial East County, recurrent flooding and cattle raiding have disrupted livelihoods, exacerbated food insecurity, and strained social cohesion. Understanding how these communities adapt is critical for informing policy and humanitarian responses.

This report explores the perspectives of agro-pastoralist men and women in Toch East and Pathuon West Payams on the impacts of flooding and conflict. It documents the adaptations they employ in crop farming and livestock management.

Findings:

Flooding has increased in frequency and severity since 2018, leading to outbreaks of human and livestock diseases, reduced livestock production, destruction of farmland, and restricted access to markets and services.
Adaptations include migration to higher ground, herd splitting, preventative health care for livestock, and dyke construction.
Conflict, primarily over cattle and grazing land, has resulted in loss of life, livestock, and displacement.
Communities have formed armed youth groups and altered migration patterns.
Women and youth face disproportionate impacts, including increased workloads and exposure to violence.

Policy implications:

Improved early warning systems, tailored veterinary services, and climate-resilient infrastructure are needed to mitigate the impacts of floods.
Conflict reduction requires community capacity building, disarmament, and support for peacebuilding.
Humanitarian aid should address both food and non-food needs, with special attention to gender-based violence and trauma support for affected populations.

Gender transformative approaches in pastoral areas

Renee Bullock — 2025-12-18

Gender transformative approaches (GTAs) engage with, and address deeply embedded structural inequities. While pastoral systems share certain features with other livelihood systems, their unique characteristics require that GTAs are tailored or adapted to address particular perennial challenges. Tailoring GTAs is also essential to ensure that interventions do not unintentionally reproduce inequalities through exclusion.

We reviewed primary and secondary sources to understand GTAs in pastoral contexts in SPARC countries in Africa. The data sources provide insights on the primary foci of GTAs, target groups, impacts, mechanisms used to implement GTAs and, lastly, metrics used to assess impact. We used the “Reach, Benefit, Empower, Transform” (RBET) framework to evaluate project level data and identify projects that had explicit transformative aims and impacts. A total of 18 interventions were included, five of which targeted adolescents.

Status of mobility of livestock in Kenya and Ethiopia

Mohammed Yahya Said — 2025-12-18

Livestock in the Horn of Africa plays a critical role in economies, food security, employment, and income generation, particularly in pastoral areas. However, livestock mobility is increasingly being restricted, compromising livestock production. Maps and data on livestock routes, infrastructure and services are scattered.

In this report, we assess the status of livestock mobility, arterial routes, infrastructure and services in Ethiopia and Kenya. Livestock routes were mapped by government experts from each country on topographical maps and later digitised. Blocked routes were noted, and case studies selected for follow-up local-level qualitative research on causes of these blockages.

Status of mobility of livestock in Ethiopia

Mohammed Said — 2025-12-17

Livestock in Ethiopia plays a critical role in the economy, contributing to food security, employment, and income generation, particularly in pastoral areas. Livestock mobility is increasingly being restrained, however, compromising livestock production. In this brief, we assess the status of livestock routes and mobility in Ethiopia.

Livestock routes, supporting infrastructure and services were mapped by government experts from each region on topographical maps and later digitised. Blocked routes were noted, and case studies selected for follow-up local-level qualitative research on causes of these blockages.

Findings:
Mapping identified approximately 25,500 kilometres of arterial livestock routes across Ethiopia in both pastoral lowlands and mixed crop-livestock highlands.
Routes are concentrated in the Amhara, Oromia and Somali regions, with additional important corridors traversing Afar, Benishangul-Gumuz, and parts of the south-western regions.
- Six routes were no longer functional owing to land conversion for agriculture, urban expansion, invasive species, increasing conflict and infrastructural development.
- Facilities to support livestock mobility, such as veterinary posts, abattoirs, holding grounds and loading ramps are few, particularly in pastoral areas.

Policy implications:
- To preserve these vital corridors, government should set policies that recognise and legally protect livestock routes, and invest in veterinary services, abattoirs, holding grounds and loading ramps.

Juxtaposition of women’s economic empowerment and innovation

Milcah Asamba — 2025-12-17

In Somaliland, women’s work, often invisible, anchors herd management, processing, and local trade, yet is constrained by limited assets, restrictive social norms, and traditional household responsibilities such as caring for children, collecting water, cleaning, and preparing family meals.

Our objective was to explore the relationship between women’s empowerment and innovation. Specifically, we aimed to understand local definitions of women’s economic empowerment and innovation; to identify formal and informal innovations created or adopted by pastoralist women, especially during crises; to explore drivers of innovation and the strategies women use to advance economically; and to examine links between women-led innovation and empowerment at practical, institutional, and normative levels.

Across villages in Hargeisa and Wajaale town, Somaliland, SPARC researchers conducted six focus group discussions (FGDs) with pastoralist and agro-pastoralist households.

Findings:

When women pursue empowerment, they innovate around the obstacles that they face including societal and cultural barriers.
Innovations, such as locally formulated animal feed rations and local adaptations to accessing formal finance, within Somaliland's livestock raising and meat trading are shaped not only by technical or financial considerations but also by deeply-rooted cultural practices and policy environments.
Women in Somaliland’s livestock economy are already innovating and adapting quietly, persistently, and effectively. They face, however, competing priorities as they advance.
The community strongly values individuals, especially women, who contribute to the welfare of others. This emphasis on collective progress and support is rooted in culture: empowerment is often viewed as an added responsibility rather than a departure from tradition. Even empowered women rarely abandon their cultural or religious values: economic advancement is compatible with longstanding social norms.

Policy implications:

Sustainable change requires integrating new practices within local values, ensuring that empowerment efforts enhance rather than disrupt the fabric of community life. Success hinges on a delicate balance of community acceptance, external support, and continued investment in education and infrastructure, specifically digital communication networks, roads, and water systems.
To push out the frontiers of productivity and women’s empowerment, policy and public investments must match practice: finance that fits the needs of women’s enterprises; digital communication as well as meat/milk infrastructure that raises quality and reduces waste; and integration of gender transformative approaches into development programmes to support redistribution of household workloads and shift norms that limit women’s agency and contribution.

Adapting through bricolage

Carolina Pimentel Corrêa — 2025-12-17

This policy brief examines how farming and pastoralist communities in North-East Nigeria adapt to shocks through livelihood diversification and the creative use of local resources, skills and support systems. It highlights the roles of women and youth in driving resilience through informal and informal networks.

Key findings

Livelihood diversification or bricolage has become central to household resilience in Adamawa and Yobe, with livelihood income sources blending traditional and innovative practices that generate distinct socioeconomic value. Pastoralist and farming households increasingly combine two to three income sources. Women are expanding into home-based and value-adding enterprises (e.g. food processing and tailoring), while youth are leading the uptake of new technologies, transport, and informal services.
Informal networks remain the primary engine of adaptation, even where formal support exists. While NGO and government programmes have helped households scale activities, families continue to rely most on kinship ties, savings groups, markets, intergenerational learning, and peer mentorship to access knowledge, cash, and labour.
Structural barriers continue to limit equitable livelihoods opportunities. Women and youth pastoralists, especially in remote areas, face persistent additional constraints including limited capital, insecure land tenure, restrictive social norms, and geographic isolation.
Resilience is strongest when individual effort, social networks and formal support align, enabling households to bounce back faster and diversify livelihoods in the face of recurrent shocks.

Land use dynamics and farmer-herder conflicts

Hussein M Sulieman — 2025-12-17

This study investigates how land use and land cover (LULC) dynamics intersect with farmer– herder conflicts (FHCs) in two contrasting contexts within the Sahelian and Sudano-Sahelian belt: Gadarif State in Sudan and Nasarawa State in Nigeria.

The study aims to understand how spatial changes in land systems contribute to rising competition over resources and to identify practical strategies for mitigating conflict. Specifically, it seeks to answer the question: what options for mitigating farmer–herder conflicts in Sudan and Nigeria are revealed by the analysis of spatial land use dynamics?

Using a mixed-methods approach, combining multi-temporal satellite imagery, geospatial analysis, field surveys, focus group discussions (FGDs), and key informant interviews (KIIs), the research highlights how evolving land systems drive tensions, and offers evidence-based options for reducing conflict through integrated land management and governance reforms. It builds on and complements earlier detailed qualitative analysis in the two geographical contexts on the causes of FHCs, and emphasises the key role land conversion plays.

Targeting individuals or communities?

Sophie Turnbull — 2025-12-17

This policy brief summarises a two-year mixed-methods impact evaluation by Causal Design assessing how two models by AfriScout influence pastoralist decision-making, rangeland and herd conditions, and offers lessons for future programmes and policy.

Five lessons for supporting resilience in conflicts and recurring crises

Simon Levine — 2025-12-16

Few published studies assess resilience-building interventions several years after completion. Since resilience can be observed only over time, almost nothing is known about what really helps people cope with shocks. Retrospective learning is even more important in conflicts and recurrent crises, where life is less predictable, and where informal rules and informal power relations are more important. Without such learning, investments in resilience continue to be based on untested assumptions.

SPARC published five retrospective studies of projects in Ethiopia, Kenya and Chad, implemented by governments, United Nations (UN) organisations, international Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and local NGOs. They covered water development in the drylands, climate-smart agriculture, public works programming and market-based pastoral development.

Common lessons, apparent across these diverse studies, combine to explain why so many investments fall short of their expectations and show how better to support resilience in places threatened by crises.

This policy brief summarises the lessons from the five retrospective case studies, revisiting projects some three to five years after closure. All were selected because the implementing agencies indicated they were successful.

Key message:

Support for resilience should focus on evolutionary change, rather than on seeking transformational leaps. It is more important that changes are easy for people to adopt than that they lead to more ideal outcomes.
Approval of any intervention should depend on evidence that it is based on an understanding of the informal ways in which people currently live. The impacts of the intervention on informal institutions – and vice versa – must be planned for. Projects should first look to improve what already exists.
No single package of ideas can match the varied needs and priorities of everyone, even in a single community. It is better to provide a range of ideas that people can adopt and adapt.
The social processes by which change is likely to happen must be set out explicitly, including, for example, how attempts at elite capture of the benefits of any intervention will be mitigated. Theories of change need to be taken seriously. They should not be reduced to diagrams. Setting out the assumptions necessary for interventions to work makes it possible for those assumptions to be monitored – and for management to be adaptive.
There are no excuses for continuing to rely on the same mistaken assumptions in project and intervention design, simply because they are never checked. It should be standard practice to revisit a sample of interventions a few years after they have closed, to learn what really happened.

Deep-rooted causes of farmer–herder conflicts and impact on local food systems

Fiona Flintan — 2025-12-16

Farmer–herder conflicts in Africa have received heightened attention in recent years in the media, academic circles and policy-making contexts, with concerns over increasing and intensifying levels of conflict within and between groups. However, despite this attention, a systematic literature review of farmer–herder conflicts identified only a few primary in-depth studies. The review also found that both women and youth are underrepresented in these studies.
This brief seeks to understand the root causes and impacts of farmer–herder conflicts through a food production system and political economy lens. It emphasises relations and impacts on food systems while recognising the politicised nature of these conflicts.

The study combined focus group discussions with key informant interviews. We conducted research between 2023 and 2025. In Sudan, the study took place in Azaza Sogora Village, Gadarif State; in Nigeria in Jangargari Ward, Awe Local Government Area, Nasarawa State; and in Mali, in Sio Commune, Mopti Region. All were chosen for their known history of farmer–herder conflicts.

Findings include:
- These conflicts stem from complex interactions of socio-economic, environmental, and historical factors, exacerbated by resource competition.
- Despite being significantly impacted by these conflicts, women and youth are often underrepresented in discussions and conflict resolution processes despite their potential to contribute positively.
- Women face unique vulnerabilities while youth demonstrate a strong interest in non-violent conflict resolution.
- Inclusive governance that actively engages these groups is essential for fostering sustainable coexistence and addressing the underlying issues driving tensions between farmers and herders.

Policy implications include:
- The need for inclusive governance that actively involves women and youth in conflict resolution regarding farmer-herder tensions.
- Policymakers should recognise the unique roles and vulnerabilities of these groups, facilitating their participation in decision-making processes.
- Strategies must focus on equitable resource management, community engagement, and addressing the underlying socio-economic and environmental factors fueling conflicts.
- By fostering collaboration among stakeholders, policies can promote sustainable coexistence and significantly mitigate the impacts of farmer-herder conflicts.

The drylands of tomorrow

Samuel F Derbyshire — 2025-12-16

This report synthesises insights from six years of SPARC research to take stock of the key challenges and opportunities facing pastoralism and agriculture in the drylands today, and to reflect on where future investment and support might be most effective. Drawing on evidence from multiple countries and placing it in conversation with wider bodies of research, the report speaks to a broad audience across policy, practice and research. It is organised around three thematic sections – peace, prosperity and resilience – each chosen to reframe common narratives. Rather than focusing solely on conflict, poverty and climate vulnerability, the report shifts attention towards what works, what is changing, and what forms of support are proving most relevant in these evolving contexts.

Cinq leçons pour renforcer la résilience lors de conflits et de crises récurrentes

Simon Levine — 2025-12-16

SPARC a revisité plusieurs projets de renforcement de la résilience, apparemment réussis, dans différents pays, plusieurs années après leur achèvement. Cette note d’information montre ce que l’expérience peut nous apprendre sur la manière dont les projets transforment réellement la vie des populations et met en lumière les idées reçues qui se révèlent systématiquement illusoires, lorsque l’on prend la peine de vérifier.

Messages clés

Le soutien à la résilience devrait se concentrer sur le changement évolutif plutôt que sur la recherche de grandes avancées transformatrices. Il est plus important que les changements soient faciles à adopter par les populations que de conduire à des résultats ideaux.
L'approbation de toute intervention devrait dépendre de la capacité à démontrer qu'elle repose sur une compréhension des modes de vie informels actuels des populations. Les impacts de l'intervention sur les institutions informelles, et vice versa, doivent être anticipés. Les projets devraient d'abord chercher à améliorer ce qui existe déjà.
Aucun ensemble d'idées ne peut répondre à la fois aux besoins et aux priorités variés de chacun, même au sein d'une seule communauté. Il est préférable de proposer un éventail d'idées que les gens peuvent adopter et adapter.
Les processus sociaux susceptibles d'entraîner des changements doivent être clairement définis, y compris, par exemple, la manière dont les tentatives des élites de s'approprier les bénéfices d'une intervention seront atténuées. Les théories du changement doivent être prises au sérieux. Elles ne doivent pas être réduites à de simples schémas. Définir les hypothèses nécessaires au bon fonctionnement des interventions permet de contrôler ces hypothèses et d'adapter la gestion.
Il n'y a aucune excuse pour continuer à se fier aux mêmes hypothèses erronées dans la conception des projets et des interventions, simplement parce qu'elles ne sont jamais vérifiées. La pratique courante devrait consister à réexaminer un échantillon d'interventions quelques années après leur clôture, afin de savoir ce qui s'est réellement passé.

Causes profondes des conflits entre agriculteurs et éleveurs et impact sur les systèmes alimentaires locaux

Fiona Flintan — 2025-12-16

Cette note d’information résume les principales conclusions d’une étude menée dans trois pays, qui analyse les causes des conflits entre agriculteurs et éleveurs à travers le prisme des systèmes alimentaires. Elle prête une attention particulière au rôle des femmes et des jeunes dans ces conflits, ainsi qu’à l’impact qu’ils exercent sur eux. L’étude met en évidence des causes profondes liées à la marginalisation et au dénuement des pasteurs, ainsi qu’au manque de sécurité foncière et à la faiblesse de la gouvernance.

Messages clés

Causes profondes complexes : Les conflits entre agriculteurs et éleveurs sont profondément enracinés dans une interaction complexe de facteurs historiques, politiques et économiques. Ils sont alimentés par la diminution de la mobilité pastorale, les conflits liés à la concurrence pour l’accès à la terre et à l’eau, l’expansion agricole et le changement climatique. Ces facteurs exacerbent les tensions entre les communautés agricoles et pastorales.
Impact sur les moyens d’existence et la sécurité alimentaire : Les conflits continuels perturbent considérablement les moyens d’existence, entraînant une baisse de la productivité agricole, la perte d’accès à des ressources essentielles et une insécurité alimentaire accrue. Les groupes vulnérables, en particulier les jeunes et les femmes, sont les plus touchés par ces perturbations, car ils ont souvent peu de possibilités économiques autres que l’agriculture ou l’élevage traditionnels.
Dynamique entre les genres lors de conflits : Les femmes et les jeunes sont souvent marginalisés dans les processus de résolution des conflits. Alors que la littérature les présente souvent comme des victimes, leur potentiel en tant qu’artisans de la paix et participants actifs à la résolution des conflits est largement méconnu. Les rôles attribués à chaque genre influencent les expériences et les réactions face aux conflits, avec des impacts différents selon le genre et l’âge.
Polarisation et violence : les conflits entraînent une animosité accrue entre les groupes, ce qui se traduit par des flambées de violence répétées qui peuvent dégénérer. Cette hostilité est souvent transmise aux jeunes générations, perpétuant ainsi des cycles de méfiance et d’hostilité qui entravent les efforts de consolidation de la paix.
Nécessité d’une gouvernance et de solutions inclusives : Pour résoudre efficacement les conflits entre agriculteurs et éleveurs, il faut adopter des approches de gouvernance inclusives qui associent activement les femmes et les jeunes à la prise de décision. Il est impératif de traiter de manière collaborative la question de l’attribution des terres et de la gestion des ressources, afin de garantir une coexistence durable entre agriculteurs et éleveurs.

Women's evolving livelihoods and shifting gender norms in Western Bahr el Ghazal State, South Sudan

Claire Bedelian — 2025-12-16

This study examines women’s adaptive livelihood strategies, or bricolage, in Western Bahr el Ghazal State, South Sudan, amidst a context of protracted conflict, climate shocks, and economic instability. It explores how women creatively combine multiple small-scale income-generating activities to sustain their household’s well-being, while navigating shifting gender dynamics and challenging sociocultural norms. The research draws on 30 in-depth interviews with women and men, 14 key informant interviews, and seven focus group discussions conducted in March 2025 across rural and peri-urban communities in Wau and Jur River counties.

Aid at a crossroads

Alex Humphrey — 2025-12-16

Drylands are among the world’s most fragile and strategically important regions, yet aid systems continue to struggle to deliver lasting impact in these contexts. As humanitarian needs rise and funding shrinks, Aid at a Crossroads argues that the challenge is not simply to do more with less, but to fundamentally rethink how aid works in crisis-affected drylands.

Drawing on six years of SPARC research across East and West Africa and the Middle East, the report shows that conventional, technocratic models of aid - designed for stability and predictability - are poorly suited to environments defined by uncertainty, climate shocks and conflict. While emergency assistance saves lives, an over-reliance on short-term responses has too often failed to address the underlying drivers of vulnerability or to support the systems that people already use to cope with crisis.

Written primarily for implementers, policy-makers and funders, the report sets out practical ways to work differently: strengthening local capacities to navigate uncertainty, embedding flexibility into how aid is funded and delivered, and embracing the complexity of drylands contexts rather than trying to simplify them away. It is accompanied by a sister report,The drylands of tomorrow: pathways to prosperity, peace and resilience.

Key messages

Recognise and engage with complexity. Drylands are shaped by intersecting climate, conflict and social dynamics. Linear theories of change and standardised solutions routinely fall short. Aid actors must invest in deeper contextual understanding and adaptive approaches that reflect how people actually live and cope in these environments.
Reframe how success is measured. Short-term, easily quantifiable outputs miss what matters most for long-term resilience. Aid should value relational outcomes - such as trust, social capital and local ownership - and adopt accountability frameworks that allow results to emerge over time
Operate with flexibility at the core. Uncertainty is not the exception in the drylands; it is the norm. Funding, management and monitoring systems must enable programmes to adapt, shift priorities and respond to change in real time, trusting front-line teams to make context-driven decisions
Invest in informal social systems. Mutual aid groups, local markets and community networks are often the first and most reliable responders in crises. Supporting and strengthening these systems can deliver wider reach, better value for money and more sustainable impact—especially where formal aid access is limited.

L’aide à la croisée des chemins

Alex Humphrey — 2025-12-16

Les zones arides comptent parmi les régions les plus fragiles au monde et les plus importantes, sur le plan stratégique,  mais les systèmes d'aide continuent de se heurter à des difficultés pour obtenir des résultats durables dans ces contextes. Alors que les besoins humanitaires augmentent et que les financements diminuent, le rapport soutient que le défi ne consiste pas simplement à faire plus avec moins, mais à repenser fondamentalement le rôle de l'aide dans les zones arides affectées par des crises.

S'appuyant sur six années de recherche menée par SPARC en Afrique orientale et occidentale et au Moyen-Orient, le rapport montre que les modèles d'aide conventionnels et technocratiques – conçus pour garantir la stabilité et la prévisibilité – sont mal adaptés aux environnements caractérisés par l'incertitude, les chocs climatiques et les conflits. Si l'aide d'urgence permet de sauver des vies, le recours excessif à des interventions à court terme a trop souvent échoué à s'attaquer aux causes profondes de la vulnérabilité ou à soutenir les systèmes que les populations utilisent déjà pour faire face aux crises.

Principalement destiné aux responsables de la mise en œuvre, aux décideurs politiques et aux bailleurs de fonds, L'aide à la croisée des chemins présente des méthodes pratiques pour travailler différemment : renforcer les capacités locales pour faire face à l'incertitude, intégrer la flexibilité dans le financement et la mise en œuvre de l'aide, et accepter la complexité des contextes des zones arides plutôt que d'essayer de les simplifier à outrance. Il est accompagné d'un rapport complémentaire, Les terres arides de demain : les voies vers la prospérité, la paix et la résilience.

Messages clés

Reconnaître et prendre en compte la complexité. Les terres arides sont façonnées par l'intersection du climat, des conflits et des dynamiques sociales. Les théories linéaires du changement et les solutions standardisées s'avèrent généralement insuffisantes. Les acteurs de l'aide doivent s'investir davantage dans la compréhension du contexte et dans des approches adaptatives qui reflètent la manière dont les populations vivent et font face à ces environnements.
Redéfinir la manière dont le succès est mesuré. Les résultats à court terme, facilement quantifiables, passent à côté de ce qui importe le plus pour la résilience à long terme. L'aide doit accorder de l'importance aux résultats relationnels, tels que la confiance, le capital social et l'appropriation locale, et adopter des cadres de responsabilité qui permettent aux résultats d'émerger au fil du temps.
Agir avec souplesse au cœur des programmes d’aide. L'incertitude n'est pas l'exception dans les zones arides, c'est la norme. Les mécanismes de financement, de gestion et de suivi doivent permettre aux programmes de s'adapter, de modifier leurs priorités et de réagir aux changements en temps réel, en faisant confiance aux équipes de terrain pour prendre des décisions en fonction du contexte.
Investir dans les systèmes sociaux informels. Les groupes d'entraide, les marchés locaux et les réseaux communautaires sont souvent les premiers à intervenir en cas de crise et les plus fiables. Soutenir et renforcer ces systèmes peut permettre d'élargir la portée de l'aide, d'optimiser les ressources et d'obtenir un impact plus durable – notamment lorsque l'accès à l'aide formelle est limité.

Les terres arides de demain

Samuel F Derbyshire — 2025-12-16

Ce rapport synthétise les conclusions de six années de recherche menées par SPARC afin de dresser un bilan des principaux défis et opportunités auxquels sont confrontés aujourd'hui le pastoralisme et l'agriculture dans les zones arides, et de réfléchir aux domaines dans lesquels les futurs investissements et soutiens pourraient être les plus efficaces.

En se concentrant sur les thèmes clés de SPARC que sont la paix, la prospérité et la résilience, il explore à la fois les défis et les facteurs favorisant le progrès pour ceux qui vivent dans les zones arides. Plutôt que de fournir des conseils opérationnels, il vise à remettre en question les hypothèses courantes et à proposer des récits alternatifs et solides qui peuvent éclairer la réflexion stratégique. Il offre ainsi une image réaliste de ce qui fonctionne et de ce qui ne fonctionne pas, en exposant les implications pour les décideurs des secteurs privé et public – ceux qui élaborent les projets, les initiatives, les politiques et les investissements pour les années à venir.

Il est accompagné d'un rapport complémentaire intitulé, L'aide à la croisée des chemins : s'adapter aux réalités des zones arides.

Messages clés:

Dans les zones arides, la prospérité et la paix durables découlent généralement de changements progressifs, ancrés localement, et non d'une transformation à grande échelle. Les zones arides sont souvent considérées comme des lieux marginaux et improductifs nécessitant une transformation à grande échelle : un discours qui façonne une vague croissante de projets d'investissement de grande envergure, notamment des programmes d'irrigation commerciale, des installations d'énergie renouvelable et des initiatives d'extraction de ressources. Mais les recherches de SPARC montrent que ce ne sont généralement pas les programmes de grande ampleur, mais les investissements à petite échelle et itératifs dans ces moyens de subsistance quotidiens qui comptent le plus pour garantir la prospérité future.
À quoi ressemble un progrès réel, et qui le détermine ? Les programmes de développement définissent souvent les problèmes et mesurent les résultats à l'aide d'un langage générique et composite. Or, ces mesures générales ne reflètent souvent pas ce qui importe le plus aux populations locales – ce qui conduit les partenaires de développement externes à mal évaluer les défis et à compromettre l'efficacité des réponses apportées. Ce décalage persistera tant que les systèmes régissant l'aide et la responsabilité politique ne parviendront pas à mieux évaluer et répondre à ce que les populations locales considèrent comme un progrès.
Les pratiques collectives sont essentielles à la résilience et au développement dans les zones arides. L'aide extérieure devrait renforcer ces dynamiques existantes en les reconnaissant et en les soutenant davantage, et devrait encourager les solutions intégrées qui répondent simultanément à plusieurs défis interdépendants, en donnant la priorité aux investissements à long terme qui renforcent la collaboration entre différents types de gouvernance, formelle et informelle.
La flexibilité des moyens de subsistance et des connaissances locales doit être reconnue. Dans les zones arides, les moyens de subsistance s'adaptent constamment à l'évolution des conditions environnementales, sociales et économiques. Pourtant, les politiques s'appuient souvent sur des catégories rigides et des solutions uniformisées qui ne tiennent pas compte de la flexibilité et de l'interdépendance – une approche qui limite les possibilités d'innovation et de croissance et qui tente de stabiliser ou de revenir à une situation « normale ». Soutenir les interactions entre les éleveurs, les agriculteurs, les commerçants et autres acteurs, plutôt que de les traiter comme des secteurs distincts, peut renforcer les réseaux et les relations pratiques qui aident les populations à s'adapter.
Les discours négatifs ont un pouvoir qui perdure. Les défis auxquels sont confrontées les zones arides aujourd'hui ne sont pas le résultat d'une vulnérabilité inhérente. Les zones arides ne sont ni vides ni intrinsèquement vulnérables ; elles sont simplement défavorisées. Pour contribuer à un avenir meilleur, il faut changer la façon dont on parle et dont on comprend les zones arides. Cela implique notamment de reconnaître la valeur des stratégies locales déjà en place et de veiller à ce que les investissements reflètent les réalités et les priorités de ceux qui vivent dans ces régions.

Status of mobility of livestock in Kenya

Mohammed Said — 2025-12-15

Livestock in Kenya play a critical role in the economy, contributing to food security, employment, and income generation, particularly in pastoral areas. However, livestock mobility is increasingly being restrained, which compromises livestock production.

This brief assesses the status of livestock routes and mobility in Kenya. Livestock routes, supporting infrastructure and services were mapped by Kenya county government experts on topographical maps and later digitised. Blocked routes were noted, and case studies selected for follow up local-level qualitative research on causes of these blockages.

Findings:
- Mapping identified approximately 31,597 kilometres of livestock routes that form the arteries of movement across 47 counties in Kenya in both pastoral lowlands and mixed crop-livestock highlands. Routes are concentrated in the arid and semi-arid lands. More than 76 routes were no longer functional owing to land conversion for agriculture, urban expansion, invasive species, increasing conflict and infrastructure development.
- Facilities to support livestock mobility, such as veterinary posts, abattoirs, holding grounds and loading ramps, are scant, particularly in pastoral areas.

Policy implications:
- To preserve these vital corridors, government needs to set policies to recognize and legally protect livestock routes, and invest in veterinary services, abattoirs, holding grounds and loading ramps.

Influencing collective land tenure indicators

Fiona Flintan — 2025-12-15

This technical report examines how collective pastoral land tenure operates in practice and how perceived tenure security can be better measured in communal land systems. Drawing on case studies from Burkina Faso, Kenya and Sudan, the research explores pastoralists’ experiences of accessing, using and governing shared grazing lands under customary and formal tenure arrangements.

Using qualitative fieldwork and an adapted Prindex approach, the study assesses perceptions of tenure security at both group and individual levels, recognising variation by gender, wealth and social position. Across all three cases, pastoralists reported relatively high perceived tenure security despite the absence of formal land documentation. This security is underpinned by strong social cohesion, locally legitimate leadership, flexible rules governing land use, good relations with neighbouring communities and the ability to maintain livestock mobility.

The report also identifies growing pressures on collective tenure systems, including agricultural expansion, land privatisation, climate change and conflict, alongside persistent gender inequalities in some contexts. It concludes by identifying key characteristics of collective tenure that can inform more appropriate indicators for measuring perceived tenure security in pastoral settings, with implications for policy, programming and global land tenure monitoring.

Business model innovation for behaviour change within the goat value chain in Ethiopia

Maureen Kamusiime — 2025-12-15

This policy brief examines how behaviour change in Ethiopia’s goat value chain was achieved through trust-based, market systems facilitation under the Resilience in Pastoral Areas (RiPA) programme. It calls on policy-makers and donors to invest in embedded actors, decentralised market access and scalable peer learning models to sustain inclusive, climate-resilient livestock trade.

Key messages

Innovations in business models are difficult for external organisations such as non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to introduce. Despite best intentions, such innovations are overly focused on reaching marginalised or vulnerable groups and not necessarily on the direct and indirect costs experienced by a business that may lead to increased revenues. Traders especially easily keep the aspects of the business model innovation that work and drop any aspect, such as new livestock pricing models, that do not yield the desired returns. In this study, most traders continued business relationships with rural aggregators using mobile phones because it reduced the traders’ costs when sourcing livestock. National traders do not offer weight-based pricing of livestock because it diminishes profit margin, despite preference for livestock pricing by regional traders.
Digital market information is the single most cost-effective driver of change. Phone and WhatsApp communication helps align supply with buyer demand, builds trust and reduces losses. But weak telecom networks limit the transformative potential. Expansion of rural telecom access, as well as investment in digital applications or low-cost SMS-based tools, make markets more accessible to pastoralists and increase trade from rural areas.
Trust-based credit supports business continuity and strengthens relationships but is fragile. Defaults and lack of formal mechanisms expose actors to high risks. A fixed amount of working capital prevents traders from off-taking more livestock from rural areas, especially when there is abundant supply. Donor-backed escrow systems and guarantee funds create an alternative source of low-cost finance, especially during times of crisis, such as drought, when it is necessary to remove more livestock and increase incomes to pastoralists.
Transport and market infrastructure are critical enablers of scale and inclusion. Shared trucking and feeder-road investments reduce costs, expand women’s participation and improve access to high-value markets. Co-financed local market centres and shared vehicle schemes can be good-value investments for governments and donors.

Enhancing pastoral adaptation strategies in Wau and Jur River Counties, South Sudan

Grace Njoroge — 2025-12-15

This policy brief draws on data collected in 2023 and 2024 to investigate how pastoralist communities in Wau and Jur River counties of South Sudan adapt their livelihood strategies in response to recurrent droughts, armed conflict, economic volatility, floods, and other shocks and crises. Residents of the research area live under constant threat and within an overall context of gender inequality. Despite significant investment from donors and the national government, interventions have failed to create sustainable solutions. As the world’s youngest nation, South Sudan may lack both the experience and resources to address these severe challenges.

Key messages

To protect livelihoods from the adverse effects of climate change, government and development partners should catalyse the adoption of alternative livelihood activities alongside traditional livestock keeping and crop production. This requires capacity development, vocational training, business development services and financial services in the community.
They should promote gender and youth inclusion in decision-making and economic participation to mitigate patriarchal social systems. This means facilitating Village Savings and Loans Associations (VSLAs) and gendertargeted support to women and youth.
They should support integrated conflict resolution programmes that promote inclusive resource sharing. Government and development partners must engage with local community leaders, community-based conflict resolution initiatives and strategies for resource management to reduce tensions between pastoralists and crop cultivators.

Mesures d'anticipation menées par les gouvernements locaux

Magda Nassef — 2025-12-15

De plus en plus, l’action anticipatoire, autrement dit les mesures préventives à prendre pour atténuer les crises avant qu’elles ne se produisent, s’inscrit dans les priorités du secteur humanitaire. Toutefois, les perspectives des gouvernements locaux sont sous-représentées dans ce débat d’acteurs humanitaires internationaux. Le programme SPARC, Soutenir le pastoralisme et l’agriculture durant les crises récurrentes et prolongées, a étudié les rôles des autorités locales face à l’anticipation des chocs, leurs actions et les enjeux auxquels elles sont confrontées pour faire entendre leurs voix. Ce programme était motivé par le fait qu’une plus grande reconnaissance des contributions locales, souvent négligées en raison des pratiques et de la terminologie différentes, aboutirait à une meilleure collaboration avec les efforts internationaux.

Dans le cadre de cette étude, les auteurs et autrices se sont entretenus avec des agents des gouvernements locaux dans deux communes de la région de Mopti, au Mali, et deux districts de Karamoja, en Ouganda. Après avoir identifié avec eux les occasions auxquelles des mesures avaient été prises en réponse à une alerte ou une menace de crise, les conversations renouvelées ont servi à créer un calendrier détaillé de ce qui était connu à un moment donné et des mesures qui avaient été prises. Les conversations se sont également intéressées à l’origine des alertes, aux stratégies adoptées et à la manière dont elles ont été appuyées.

Local government led anticipatory action

Magda Nassef — 2025-12-15

This study engaged with local government staff in two communes in Mopti Region, Mali and two districts in Karamoja in Uganda. After identifying with staff the occasions when they had taken proactive action in response to the warning or threat of a crisis, repeated conversations were used to create a detailed timeline of what was known when and what actions were taken.

The conversations also investigated where warnings came from, what strategies were adopted and how they were supported. The examples that local authority staff gave included floods, droughts, a locust plague and epidemics of human and livestock diseases . The study looked only at the perspectives and thinking of local authorities on forward-looking action: their successes and the opinions of assisted populations was largely beyond its scope.

Supporting (agro) pastoralists’ resilience through real-time monitoring of drought in Kenya and Ethiopia

Kelvin Mashisia Shikuku — 2025-12-15

This report documents the implementation and achievements of the Drought Index-insurance for Resilience in the Sahel and Horn of Africa (DIRISHA) project. It documents the project’s impacts on pastoralists’ welfare, discusses the role of partnerships, and provides lessons and recommendations for policy and future research in the use of citizen science and crowdsourcing techniques to support resilience in fragile and conflict-affected settings.

Influencer les indicateurs du régime foncier collectif

Fiona Flintan — 2025-12-14

Le régime foncier pastoral collectif et les perceptions de la sécurité foncière pastorale ne sont pas bien compris. Par conséquent, ce régime foncier collectif n'est pas pris en compte dans les systèmes mondiaux de surveillance du régime foncier, tels que celui mis en place par Prindex.

Nous avons étudié les systèmes fonciers collectifs au Burkina Faso, au Kenya et au Soudan afin d'orienter l'élaboration future d'indicateurs de sécurité foncière dans les communautés. Nous nous sommes concentrés sur la sécurité foncière perçue et sur l'élaboration de caractéristiques et d'indicateurs à mesurer. Deux niveaux de propriété foncière et de sécurité foncière ont été pris en compte : celui du collectif et celui des individus au sein du collectif, en reconnaissant que les collectifs ne sont pas homogènes.

Nous avons collaboré avec des groupes pastoraux typiques où la propriété collective et la gouvernance sont relativement solides, et où le pastoralisme fonctionne bien. En 2022-2023, nous avons commencé par examiner la littérature afin d'établir le contexte, puis nous avons interrogé des informateurs clés et organisé des discussions de groupe avec des collectifs pastoraux. Les discussions ont porté sur la perception du groupe sur la sécurité foncière, du collectif lui-même, ainsi que sur la perception individuelle de la sécurité de l'accès à la terre et aux ressources en tant que membres du groupe.

Résultats
Aucune des communautés pastorales ne détient de documents officiels attestant leur propriété foncière, mais elles se considèrent néanmoins comme les propriétaires légitimes de leurs terres. Celles-ci sont soumises à des pressions externes et internes, telles que les projets agricoles à grande échelle et les initiatives de privatisation des terres, ce qui entraîne une augmentation des conflits entre les différents utilisateurs des terres.
La sécurité foncière perçue est toutefois élevée pour les éleveurs, tant au niveau collectif qu'individuel. Les caractéristiques importantes de la sécurité foncière étaient la cohésion sociale avec un leadership clair et autonome, de bonnes relations avec les voisins ou les hôtes qui accordent des droits d'utilisation secondaires ou le droit de se déplacer sur leurs terres avec le bétail, et la flexibilité du système pour répondre aux menaces et aux défis nouveaux ou récurrents, tels que de nouveaux développements d'infrastructures, des régimes pluviométriques plus variables et l'empiètement des terres de pâturage par les agriculteurs.

Implications politiques
Le bon fonctionnement des régimes fonciers collectifs repose sur quatre facteurs qui peuvent être utilisés pour élaborer des indicateurs de la sécurité foncière perçue. Il s'agit des facteurs suivants :
- Des règles et une gestion solides mais souples, établies localement et soutenues par un leadership fort et respecté ;
- Un sens hérité des valeurs et des pratiques collectives, mais aussi la reconnaissance et le renforcement des droits des membres individuels du collectif, notamment des femmes et des jeunes potentiellement marginalisés ;
- De bonnes relations locales entre les éleveurs et les autres communautés voisines ; et
- La possibilité de se déplacer librement sur le territoire du collectif et sur celui d'autres collectifs avec leur accord.

How to manage crises differently in ASALs without talking about a nexus

Nancy Balfour — 2025-12-13

We have known for decades that the international aid model for responding to emergencies does not work well where crises are frequent. Long-term development planning struggles to deal with crises, often leaving the responsibility to separate emergency interventions – but these short-term measures often undermine longerterm strategies. Various theoretical approaches have been proposed for addressing this fragmented situation, but with little success.

SPARC’s recent research on the provision of water in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) of eastern Africa offers a different way of addressing the issue. By identifying the specific problems caused by the lack of integration between emergency water interventions and water development, sensible solutions can be found without getting bogged down in jargon around the development–water–peace ‘nexus’ or in resilience frameworks.

This same approach offers more practical ways forward than the struggles that arise when the starting point is the architecture of emergency assistance rather than a shared responsibility for providing a reliable water supply.

Narratives of change

Nyibol Elizabeth Malou — 2025-12-10

This issue brief examines the evolving productive roles of Agar Dinka women in South Sudan, in the context of increasing male absence due to conscription, conflict, and economic migration.

The study was conducted in January and February 2025 across four counties in Lakes State by the lead author and a team of local researchers. Drawing primarily on women’s firsthand accounts, the research explores four key themes:
- Women's traditional productive roles.
- Women's current productive roles.
- Drivers of change.
- The benefits and drawbacks of these changes.

Key findings include:
- Agar Dinka women have traditionally played vital roles in crop cultivation, livestock care, food management, and income generation. With the growing absence of men, women are increasingly taking on greater responsibilities, especially in rural areas where they often lead both farming and livestock activities.
- Displaced women in urban areas are assuming new roles in humanitarian work, wage labour, and small-scale enterprise.
- Younger women are more open to new opportunities, whereas older women often express concern about the erosion of traditional structures and support systems.
Policy implications include:
- The need for agriculture and livelihood-related policy processes in South Sudan to acknowledge and adapt to the changing roles of women.
- It is critical to engage women as active decision-makers, not merely as recipients or beneficiaries of policy interventions planned for men.

Gender transformative approaches in pastoral areas

Renee Bullock — 2025-11-24

Gender transformative approaches (GTAs) engage with and address deeply embedded structural inequities. While pastoral systems share certain features with other livelihood systems, their unique characteristics require that GTAs are tailored or adapted to address particular perennial challenges. Tailoring GTAs is essential to also ensure that interventions do not unintentionally reproduce inequalities through exclusion.

We reviewed primary and secondary sources to understand GTAs in pastoral contexts in SPARC countries in Africa. The data sources provide insight on the primary foci of GTAs, target groups, impacts, mechanisms used to implement GTAs and, lastly, metrics used to assess impact.

From risk to resilience

Wendy Chamberlin — 2025-11-20

Humanitarian and development often encourage pastoralists to adopt innovations they believe will benefit pastoralists. Despite a multitude of innovations being introduced each year, sustained adoption by pastoralists is limited. Introduced innovations often reflect limited understanding of adaptations used by pastoralists. Innovations that include feedback mechanisms and iteration during the design and testing phase experience greater adoption when introduced in new areas.

SPARC researchers have carried out 23 studies on innovations. We reviewed these studies and interviewed research leads to identify common findings on pastoralists’ perceptions of risk.

Findings include:

Pastoralists in arid and semi-arid areas prioritise locally-developed adaptations. Despite good intentions, innovations introduced by external actors to help pastoralists manage risks typically address a single issue without accounting for the complex, overlapping challenges pastoralists face. Such narrow focus frequently results in limited adoption by intended end-users.
Before developing effective innovations, it is essential to understand how pastoralists perceive, interpret, and prioritise the risks they encounter. This includes how individual pastoralists and households make sense of the reasons for these risks. This informs how they evaluate their threat exposure and what they prioritise to protect (e.g. relationships, cash, assets) before adapting, absorbing, or recovering from threats.. Doing so can give insight as to their adaptation priorities and the resources they may need to adapt.

Policy implications include:

Externally introduced innovations will only be relevant if designed to complement the many existing ways that pastoralists gather information, prioritise their needs, and make use of their social networks.
By understanding both pastoralist perceived risks and what they seek to protect, innovators and external actors can better identify solutions that will genuinely support pastoralists to adapt to hazards.

Recommendations include:

Investment in innovation requires timelines and financing that supports end-user feedback and product / process iteration. Without iteration and contextualisation, innovations struggle to reach target end-users beyond an initial pilot phase.
Reconsider single purpose innovations. Innovations that have multiple uses or can be adapted by pastoralists or end-users have the highest adoption rates.
Build on existing de-risking approaches that are prioritised by pastoralists. For example, digital communications that support access to or expansion of social networks.
Invest in activities that build end-user trust in innovations; especially innovations designed to improve access to information. End-users must trust the information before they continue to use an innovation.

Dynamic livelihoods in conflict and recurrent crises

Leigh Mayhew — 2025-11-20

Understanding the dynamics of change is important. In places affected by recurrent crises and conflict, we know from experience that people’s livelihoods are dynamic. In the face of uncertainty, many people look to reinvent their livelihoods; they may innovate, copy, change or adapt. But those seeking to support them, i.e. their governments and the aid sector, do not always seek to understand the changes which people are already making, or the opportunities and the constraints they face in doing so. This may be leading to loss of focus on the needs and interests of the people those external actors are seeking to support.

This research presents the personal accounts of a number of people who have attempted to make changes and who have achieved some degree of success. Not everyone has such stories to tell. But documenting these selected stories offers policy-makers and others a different way of approaching the livelihoods of people affected by crises and conflict. It demonstrates that those challenged by uncertainty are not passive victims – rather, they are using their own agency to navigate crises and, where opportunity allows, seeking to advance their lives.

Food aid, sharing and resilience

Fiona Flintan — 2025-11-19

The Horn of Africa is experiencing increased frequency, duration and severity of droughts, strongly influenced by climate change. Considerable attention has been given to targeting food aid, concerned that its impact may be diluted by recipients sharing food with others or diverting it to better-off households. Community social structures and coping mechanisms are perceived by government and aid agencies to be weakening to a point of failure.

To understand if and how pastoralists shared food aid, and if this affected their ability to cope with and recover from drought, we studied households in three purposively selected kebeles of Su’ula (Afar), Asli (Somali) and Fuldowa (Oromia) that had received food aid during the drought of 2020–2023.

We interviewed all 1,805 heads of households in three kebeles using a survey to ask about sharing of food (and other types of) aid (receiving and giving), its effects on coping with and recovering from drought, and about the strength of the community. Following an initial analysis of survey data, including social network mapping of giving and receiving of food aid, we interviewed households seen to play an important or clear connecting role in the network to explore the reasons for their exceptionalness.

Findings include:
- Some 86% of the households surveyed reported having received food aid from formal aid distribution sources, with 86% of households reporting that they received food aid shared from another household.
- Seventy-nine percent said that they shared food aid with another household, with a significant number both receiving and sharing. Sharing was most prevalent in Oromia (Fuldowa), with 98% of households receiving food aid from another household. Most transactions took place within the kebele.
- Relationships between givers and receivers highlighted the emphasis on family and the community.
- About 61% of households sharing food aid said they share because the recipient had none, and another 27% said, “it is normal to share.”
- While 61% of households said that the single most crucial factor that helped them cope with drought was formal food aid distribution, the sharing of food aid between households is seen as an important, often perceived as obligatory, social interaction that keeps their community strong.

Policy implications include:
- Social resilience during a drought is not solely determined by access to aid but alsoby the social fabric through which it flows.
- Social networks - including improving inclusivity - need to be strengthened, rather than trying to stop or limit their functionality by telling communities not to share food aid.
- Targeting of food aid (as with other aid) needs to be improved through co-design of interventions by humanitarian actors and community members to account for and support household connectivity.

Market monitoring and localised research in extreme conflict

2025-10-17

This issue brief captures the key lessons from pioneering a locally-led approach to market monitoring, analysis and research in a context of extreme conflict and insecurity across Darfur, Sudan. It reflects on adaptations made to conventional market monitoring systems, drawing on experienced expert opinion from the ground, and on the importance of adaptive and simplified project management when working in a war zone.

Ten ways to create people-centred early warning systems in conflicts and recurrent crises

Simon Levine — 2025-10-15

This policy brief explores the challenges of creating a multi-hazard early warning system in conflict and recurrent crises, and what it means in such difficult places for them to be ‘people-centred’. It provides 10 recommendations for supporting people-centred early warning systems in conflicts and recurrent crises, drawing on learning from research projects conducted by SPARC over the past six years.

Disponible en français.

Ten ways to reduce disaster risk in conflicts and recurring crises

Simon Levine — 2025-10-15

This policy brief makes the case that disaster risk reduction in conflict and recurring crises is both necessary and possible – it can be, and is being, done locally, even without support. Analysis from research projects by SPARC over the past six years is distilled in 10 recommendations that set an approach to reducing disaster risk that is relevant in conflict and recurring crises – and that can achieve scale.

*Disponible en français.

Twelve ways to take anticipatory action to scale in conflicts and recurring crises

Simon Levine — 2025-10-15

This policy brief considers what is required for anticipatory action models to reach scale in difficult places, such as conflicts and recurrent crises. It provides 12 recommendations based on learning from research projects conducted by SPARC over the past six years. *Disponible en français.

Humanitarian agencies are giving progressively more attention to anticipatory action, i.e. proactive response to the threat of a crisis. But successful models for such action are not necessarily replicable in ‘difficult places’ with conflicts and recurring crises. Conflicts affect everything that can happen where it occurs.

SPARC has conducted many research studies over the past five years about enhancing livelihoods in these difficult places, including studies that directly looked at early warning and anticipatory action. The policy review looked at all SPARC publications, and it distils all of the findings and recommendations that are relevant to supporting anticipatory action in conflicts and recurring crises.

This brief does not set out a full analysis of everything that is known about anticipatory action in conflicts and recurring crises. It limits itself to synthesising the lessons from SPARC’s other studies. Each had its own methodological approach.

Findings

Successful anticipatory action has mainly been achieved in an overall context of a functioning state, within an economy that remains largely unaffected by a disaster that is limited in scope and duration, and where there are markets that work.

These conditions exclude conflicts and recurring crises where it is harder to:

identify when to trigger ‘anticipatory’ action, because there may be no pre-crisis normality
find interventions that can allow people to head off crisis, where people are already using every coping strategy possible and where the spike in crisis may last more than a few months
implement effective action, given that the functioning of state institutions is usually highly constrained and trust in society is usually low.

Policy implications

In places with conflicts and/or recurrent crises, it is not possible to replicate anticipatory projects that have been successful elsewhere. Anticipatory action is much harder where there is no pre-crisis normality, no predictable trajectory for any crisis and it is harder to define obvious triggers in advance.
Conflicts affect everything. They shape how shocks affects people, and also what actions are feasible, and who will benefit from any action. In places with conflict, it is essential to ask three questions:

How will the conflict affect the impacts of the forecast shock?
How will the conflict affect plans to respond to the forecasts?
How will the plans affect conflict?

Anticipatory action cannot be planned in isolation. It must be part of an overall strategy of disaster risk management (DRM).
Centralised models of anticipatory action and tying funds to a single set of triggers at national level are incompatible with the flexibility needed to be context-appropriate, and responsive to local situations and their windows of opportunity for action.
Promoting anticipatory action means supporting everyone’s capacity to make their own forward-looking decisions. Governments and other agencies should not focus solely on implementing their own pre-planned, pre-funded projects.

Youth in farmer-herder conflicts

Magda Nassef — 2025-09-30

This report explores the roles of young men and women in farmer–herder conflicts in Sudan and Nigeria. It highlights the severe livelihood and social impacts of conflict on youth and calls for their inclusion in governance, support for youth-led peace-building, gender-responsive skill-building, and expanded access to finance and opportunities.

Do new permanent water supplies in the drylands help build resilience?

Nancy Balfour — 2025-09-30

Permanent water supplies are often assumed to have a positive impact on climate resilience. However, there are concerns about potential negative effects of water supply developments in drylands on grazing patterns, settlement and conflicts. To manage these risks, planning for water investments must be informed by evidence (not assumptions) on their links with resilience.

Study teams visited four sites in different sub-counties in Marsabit County, Kenya, and five sites in Geshamo and Dagahbur districts in Somali Region, Ethiopia. We looked at:

the literature and had consultations with experts;
the sites' impact on people’s resilience and ability to cope with the most recent drought;
how far any improvements will provide longer-term resilience to climate change impacts;
the perceptions of different stakeholders on the role of new water supplies in resilience strategies and climate adaptation;
the plausible causal chains leading from a new water source to resilience, as broadly understood;
the impacts of water sources on resilience from as many perspectives as possible.

Findings

Only around half the boreholes visited were functional, and most of those were providing only saline water, causing health problems.
Formal management systems often lacked accountability, and indigenous systems had been sidelined.
Women benefited from reduced water-fetching burdens but boreholes did not support irrigation or other economic activities. Any economic benefits were often captured by elites.
The boreholes led to settlement, overgrazing and rangeland degradation, undermining mobility. Water projects had been used to advance claims for resources, leading to conflict.
Boreholes did not reduce livestock losses during the 2021–23 drought or help pastoralists cope better.

Policy implications

The current approach to providing new water supplies is undermining rather than enhancing pastoralists’ resilience.
Mobility must be recognised as the key adaptation strategy for pastoralists in the Horn of Africa.
Settlements and overgrazing caused by new water supplies in fallback grazing areas exposes pastoralists to drought.
Integrating traditional governance mechanisms in the management of water supplies would help to prevent social fragmentation and conflict.
Urgent action is needed to manage salinity problems in water supplies.

Women in farmer-herder conflicts

Magda Nassef — 2025-09-30

This report explores women’s roles in farmer–herder conflicts in Sudan and Nigeria, documenting how conflict affects their livelihoods, food security and psychosocial well-being. It highlights women’s agency alongside their exclusion from decision-making and recommends context-specific support to strengthen economic resilience, land access, leadership and inclusion in peace-building.

Accès à la terre et résilience des femmes refugiées soudanaises au Tchad

Camille Laville — 2025-09-26

En 2025, plus d’un million de réfugiés soudanais, principalement des femmes et des enfants, vivent dans l’Est du Tchad, certains depuis plus de 15 ans. Le gouvernement tchadien et ses partenaires humanitaires souhaitent soutenir leur autonomisation par l’accès à la terre. Néanmoins, cet accès se fait aujourd’hui principalement par des accords avec les communautés hôtes selon des conditions méconnues.

Cette étude explore les obstacles et opportunités d’accès à la terre des réfugiées soudanaises dans l’est du Tchad, en analysant les perceptions des communautés. Elle examine les barrières systémiques, l’impact des caractéristiques sociales des femmes sur leur accès à la terre, et les opportunités pour améliorer la coordination des acteurs.

Les données recueillies proviennent de 30 groupes de discussion menés avec plus de 300 personnes des camps de Touloum, Djabal et Abou-Tengué en février 2025. Elles sont complétées par une revue de la littérature grise et académique, une étude des budgets nationaux, et des entretiens qualitatifs réalisés auprès d’acteurs humanitaires, administratifs, coutumiers, et de spécialistes des questions de genre et de foncier au Tchad, entre octobre 2024 et février 2025.

L’engagement du Tchad et de ses partenaires humanitaires et de développement en faveur des réfugiés reste freiné par l’absence d’objectifs clairs concernant l’accès des femmes à la terre. Face à la baisse des financements, repenser l’accès à la terre comme enjeu transversal permet d’éviter des appuis inefficaces et mal ciblés.

Les hôtes et les réfugiés reconnaissent largement que les femmes réfugiées accèdent moins à la terre si elles sont enceintes ou seules avec des enfants jeunes ou des personnes handicapées à charge. A l’inverse, la jeunesse et le soutien de la famille proche, notamment des adolescents, sont perçus comme des avantages clés.

La marchandisation des terres accentue les inégalités de genre en empêchant les femmes réfugiées sans garant masculin d’accéder à la terre. La confusion entre accès et utilisation des terres est une source de tensions entre communautés, fragilisant la coexistence pacifique et les programmes de villagisation.

Recommandations

Intégrer pleinement les enjeux fonciers pour les communautés hôtes et réfugiées dans les objectifs climatiques nationaux.
Accorder une attention accrue aux inégalités d’accès liées à la composition des ménages dans les stratégies nationales pour l’Est, sensibiliser les autorités locales à ces sujets et établir des dispositifs juridiques adaptés aux barrières genrées.
Soutenir l’accès équitable aux semences et outils agricoles, adapté au genre et aux réalités locales afin d’éviter les effets locaux néfastes et les ruptures d’approvisionnement.
Prioriser les zones où les camps empiètent sur les terres hôtes ou affectées par la marchandisation des terres dans les programmes de dons de terres réhabilitées.
Mener une évaluation conjointe des infrastructures routières et hydriques, incluant les communautés hôtes, pour mieux cibler les investissements et réduire les sentiments d’injustice.

Ce rapport est disponible en anglais.

Lessons for research funders from locally led action research on women’s empowerment among pastoralists

Katharine Vincent — 2025-09-01

Key findings and recommendations

Research funders should fund action research as it helps to address the need for immediate tangible benefits.
Flexibility with progress milestones and disbursement schedules helps researchers cope with volatilit and unpredictability.
Research proposals need to articulate how access and trust of both women and men will be gained if the aim to shift gender norms is to be achieved.
Research funders should set expectations appropriate for the type of implementing organisation carryingout the research, to support better outcomes.

Climate-responsive social protection

Anna McCord — 2025-07-21

This primer sets out the range of challenges that climate change presents for poor and vulnerable people in the Global South and the ways that philanthropy can support social protection systems to respond to these needs. Social protection systems need to respond, and there are various operational arenas in which that response needs to occur.

Key Messages

Governments have a clear responsibility to vulnerable populations to develop comprehensive climate-responsive social protection systems, but there are many limitations and gaps in provision already – to say nothing of future challenges as climate change impacts intensify and economic transformation accelerates for a low-carbon future.
Philanthropy is well positioned to invest in enhancing the capacity of social protection to address climate change, and support the individuals and groups most likely to be affected by climate change and excluded from the benefits of low-carbon transitions
With the next round of nationally determined contributions (NDCs) being submitted and the Fund for responding to Loss and Damage becoming operational, 2025 is a critical juncture for climate policy. By engaging in dialogue and the development of climate-responsive social protection mechanisms (CRSP), philanthropies can help ensure implementation of NDCs and finance for addressing loss and damage, in order to protect the most vulnerable
Modalities for strategic philanthropic support in CRSP include: the provision of finance for implementation (including through matched funding); technical support (including research and evaluation to build a strengthened evidence base); piloting project innovation; and advocacy

Supporting adolescent girls’ well-being in climate- and conflict-affected areas of East and West Africa

Tom Kipruto — 2025-06-30

This policy brief synthesises evidence on interventions to support the financial and psychosocial well-being of adolescent girls in vulnerable pastoral areas, highlighting gaps to inform future programmes and policies.

Transforming pastoral livelihoods through market interventions: does the impact match expectations?

Claire Bedelian — 2025-06-27

Models that seek to drive transformation of rural economies by greater market orientation have been widely used, including, over many years, in pastoral economies. Even where evaluations have shown successful implementation, little has been studied about their contribution to change because studies have not sought to trace the impacts down to the intended ‘beneficiaries’, the small-scale rural producers.

This is compounded by the problem of learning being restricted to project timeframes, whereas sustainable change can be seen only in much longer timeframes. As a result, we know too little about how best to support resilience in pastoral economies.

The report is based on an internal impact assessment of market-based development programmes implemented over the past decade and more in Somali Regional State in Ethiopia. It looks only at general lessons about the development model and theory of change, and its appropriateness for pastoral economies. Using the programmes as a case studies of resilience-building, it offers lessons of wide applicability on approaches that could make investments in resilience more effective.

The inconvenient truths of water development in the drylands of the Horn of Africa

Nancy Balfour — 2025-06-26

This policy brief examines the risks and impacts of permanent water supplies in the drylands of Ethiopia and Kenya, finding that poorly planned investments can disrupt grazing, settlement and resource access if not grounded in evidence.

The impact of war on trade and markets in Darfur

SPARC - — 2025-04-14

This issue brief provides an overview of how trade and markets in Darfur have adapted, positively and negatively, to the conflict since full-scale war broke out in April 2023. It is mainly focused on trade and markets within the five Darfur states. It complements the SPARC brief 'Darfur’s long-distance trade: impact of war and Rapid Support Forces' trade embargo'. Although Darfur had already experienced 20 years of violent conflict since 2003, the nature and intensity of the current war is on an entirely different scale, now nationwide and fuelled by wider geopolitical interests.

This brief identifies some trends that have amplified adaptations to the conflict in Darfur since 2003, and some that are new. It is based on first-hand observation and data collected by a network of researchers across all five Darfur states who are in regular contact with traders in each of the Darfur state capitals. Our focus is trade and market dynamics; it is beyond the scope of the brief to capture the consequences for agricultural production and producers.

The war economy in Darfur

2025-04-14

This brief explores how trade fuels conflict through the war economy in Darfur and highlights consequences for established traders, with the aim of informing market-oriented humanitarian programming.

Darfur’s long-distance trade

2025-04-14

The ongoing war in Sudan between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF), which began in April 2023, has profoundly disrupted Darfur’s economy. With the RSF controlling most of the region (except El Fasher), trade and economic activity have come under its authority.

The RSF’s embargo on regular trade has obstructed the movement and export of locally produced commodities, isolating western Sudan from national and international markets. This has directly and indirectly affected producers, traders, businesspeople, transporters, and wage laborers across multiple sectors.

Drawing on first‑hand accounts and monitoring from Darfur’s states, the brief highlights the compounding consequences of conflict on trade, livelihoods, and food security, offering insights for humanitarian, development, and peace actors.

Behavioural and norms-responsive animal health systems for pastoralists in Ethiopia and Kenya

Noura Kamel — 2025-03-31

Millions of people in marginalised regions depend on pastoralism for their livelihoods, yet they face mounting threats from conflict and climate change. Limited access to animal health services (AHS) and low demand for care have led to higher livestock mortality and reduced productivity—putting entire communities at risk.

Strengthening AHS delivery is crucial, but real progress requires a comprehensive understanding of the behavioural, social, and gender dynamics that shape these systems. Despite pastoralist women playing a central role in livestock management, their influence remains largely overlooked.

This field-based study focuses on four pastoral communities: Oromia and Somali regions in Ethiopia, and Isiolo and Samburu in Kenya. The research explores innovative ways to improve access and the use of AHS in the face of growing challenges. Using a qualitative approach that combines a literature review with primary data collection methods (including key informant interviews, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions), data was gathered from pastoral community members, AHS professionals, relevant government officials, and other stakeholders at the community, regional, and national/federal levels in Ethiopia and Kenya.

Findings include: In both Ethiopia and Kenya, AHS are often inaccessible, under-resourced, or costly, leading pastoralists to rely on self-treatment and ethnoveterinary practices. Women, especially those heading households or when male partners are unavailable, actively manage AHS but face disproportionate barriers such as time burden, mobility constraints, insufficient animal health knowledge, and financial limitations. Gender norms further restrict women’s decision-making and access to male-dominated AHS providers, though evolving roles due to climate change are reshaping responsibilities.

Policy recommendations include: Expanding last-mile delivery through public-private partnerships (PPPs) and community-based models like Community Animal Health Workers (CAHWs) can improve reach and affordability. Increasing women’s participation in AHS provision, leveraging digital tools , and introducing mediated consultations can further enhance accessibility. Strengthening PPPs - whether in Ethiopia’s public-driven system or Kenya’s private-sector model - is key to building a sustainable, inclusive animal health ecosystem.

Does resilience-building last when projects end?

Dorice Agol — 2025-03-31

Few studies assess the longer‑term impacts of resilience‑building projects in drylands once external support ends. This research revisits three interventions in Turkana, Kenya village (savings and loan associations (VSLAs), improved water supply, and livestock marketing) six years after project closure.

All institutions persisted but none functioned as intended. Informal rules and power relations continued to shape outcomes, limiting enforcement of formal regulations. VSLAs were decapitalising, sustained only by further aid, and excluded most community members. Boreholes provided reliable water but encouraged settlement, reducing mobility and sparking resource conflicts.

Findings highlight that institutional sustainability requires alignment between formal and informal rules, and that power asymmetries predictably undermine outcomes.

Policy implications stress the need for systematic retrospective evaluation, realistic expectations of incremental change, and designs grounded in existing practices. Resilience programming should avoid assumptions of transformative change and instead support organic, locally driven processes that build on what communities already do.

What happened when resilience-building projects closed

Collete Benoudji — 2025-03-31

This report evaluates the long-term success of a climate-smart agriculture project at building resilience five years after it ended in eastern Chad.

Rethinking land policy for Kenya’s pastoral communities

Ken Otieno — 2025-03-27

This policy brief reviews Kenya’s 2009 National Land Policy and its implications for pastoralists, recommending reforms to better protect collective rights, integrate indigenous practices, and involve pastoral communities in land use planning and governance. It was released to influence the government’s ongoing review of the National Land Policy.

The use of gender transformative approaches (GTAs) in pastoralist societies

Ramona Ridolfi — 2025-03-11

This policy brief reviews behaviour change strategies and monitoring tools used in gender-transformative approaches in the Horn of Africa, offering insights to inform future programme design for dryland communities.

Do public works programmes create valuable assets for livelihoods and resilience?

Simon Levine — 2024-12-19

Public works programmes (PWPs) channel billions of dollars annually, with wage transfers forming a major share of budgets. These programmes justify additional costs of supervision and materials by assuming that constructed assets will generate long‑term livelihood benefits. Yet evidence of such impacts is rarely studied.

Using mixed methods in Ethiopia (soil and water conservation in North Wollo) and Kenya (earth dams in Makueni County), this report assessed the contribution of PWP assets three to five years after implementation. Findings reveal negligible livelihood impacts: earth dams failed to improve water access due to poor design, while hillside conservation produced visible environmental changes without economic benefits. Across both cases, labour absorption was prioritized over asset quality, undermining resilience outcomes.

The study highlights systemic weaknesses in PWP design and monitoring, cautioning against reliance on anecdotal success stories. Policy implications stress the need for rigorous evaluation, cost‑effectiveness, and consideration of unconditional transfers where asset benefits cannot be assured.

Bearing the burden

Florence Pinchon — 2024-12-05

Understanding climate‑attributable loss and damage is critical for least developed countries seeking support to address climate impacts. This report analyses data from 18 countries in the Sahel and Horn of Africa between 2000 and 2022, estimating the costs of extreme weather events in terms of lives lost, agricultural damage, and broader socio‑economic impacts.

Climate change contributed to 12,000 deaths and affected nearly 149 million people, with $11.5 billion in crop and livestock losses. Projections suggest costs could reach $160 billion by 2050 under 2°C warming. Beyond economic losses, communities face non‑economic damages, including health impacts, loss of livelihoods, cultural identity, and traditional knowledge.

Despite data gaps in fragile contexts, the report demonstrates that assessment is possible and essential for equitable funding. It calls for improved methodologies, investment in data collection, and attention to vulnerable groups, supporting the Loss and Damage Fund Board and negotiators in designing effective finance mechanisms.

Readiness to access climate finance in Chad

Camille Laville — 2024-10-10

Chad ranks among the most climate‑vulnerable countries globally, placing last on the 2021 ND‑Gain Index. Increasing droughts underscore the urgent need for climate finance to support adaptation and resilience. This report assesses Chad’s readiness through document review, stakeholder interviews, and engagement with the Accelerating Climate Finance working group.

Findings reveal significant barriers: weak institutional capacity to plan, access, deliver, and monitor climate finance; limited evidence on climate risks and effectiveness of past actions; and a lack of concrete, bankable projects despite priorities identified in national adaptation strategies. Data gaps, spanning climate, socioeconomic, and geospatial information, further constrain readiness.

While policy frameworks have improved, implementation remains minimal, and external initiatives are unlikely to achieve scale or predictability without stronger domestic commitment. Addressing readiness gaps requires political will at the highest level, investment in data systems, and institutional reforms to mobilise and manage climate finance effectively for resilience in Chad’s fragile context.

État de préparation du Tchad à l’accès au financement climatique

Camille Laville — 2024-10-10

Ce rapport évalue et identifie les obstacles et lacunes à surmonter pour que le Tchad soit prêt à recevoir et à utiliser efficacement les financements climatiques.

Recovering from civil war

Teddy Atim — 2024-09-30

This study investigates the dynamics shaping livelihoods and resilience in fragile contexts, focusing on the intersection of social, economic, and environmental pressures. Using mixed methods, it explores how local communities respond to shocks such as climate variability, conflict, and market disruptions, while also examining the role of governance and external interventions.

Findings highlight the importance of integrating technical expertise with contextual knowledge to design inclusive, sustainable solutions. Evidence shows that while short‑term coping strategies provide temporary relief, long‑term resilience requires investment in education, infrastructure, and equitable access to resources. The report underscores the need for gender‑responsive and socially inclusive approaches that account for intersecting identities and vulnerabilities.

Policy implications stress the importance of adaptive programming, participatory governance, and targeted support to marginalised groups. Ultimately, the study contributes to debates on how to strengthen resilience and promote equitable development in complex, fragile environments.

Assessing and financing loss and damage to climate change in Somalia

Lena Nur — 2024-09-30

This report provides new estimates of climate-attributable losses and damages in Somalia to inform national planning and international advocacy. Between 2000 and 2021, droughts and floods likely linked to climate change caused direct economic impacts equivalent to 3.3% of GDP, with agriculture and livestock losses amounting to $2.84 billion (4.5% of agricultural GDP).

Projections suggest that, without significant climate-resilient development, cumulative losses from floods and droughts could reach $5 to $100 billion by the 2050s. Slow-onset processes, including rising temperatures, rainfall variability, evapotranspiration, and sea-level rise,pose further risks to crop yields, livestock health, and coastal ecosystems.

While opportunities exist to leverage international loss and damage finance, Somalia faces challenges of limited fiscal space, fragile institutions, and constrained access to global funds. Strengthening national capacity to quantify losses and articulate financing needs is critical to securing support for livelihoods and resilience in one of the world’s most climate-vulnerable contexts.

Forecasts for pastoralists

Ellen Reid — 2024-09-27

This policy brief explores the low demand for formal weather forecasts by pastoralists. Such low demand was seen to result from a mismatch between the information needs and systems of pastoralists and how weather information is translated and transferred to them in northern Kenya. Particular problems include: how the certainty of forecasts is conveyed to pastoral users; recognising diversity among pastoralists (particularly gender), and how it impacts information needs, channels, dissemination and use; and the potential for forecasts to increase resource competition.

Findings include: Formal forecasts should not necessarily supplant the longstanding ways pastoralists predict weather but, rather, be delivered to forums where herd managers can consider all sources of information relevant to their livelihood. To make better use of formal weather information, forecasts need to be co-designed with pastoralists to better meet their needs. Weather information should be linked to the types of decisions and trade-offs that end users are making, ones that revolve around the expected availability of water, graze and fodder. Forecast literacy among potential pastoralist users could be improved; the terms and language used by scientific forecasters may not be readily understandable to them.

Participatory planning in East Africa’s drylands, take two

Kamran Hakiman — 2024-09-26

Existing literature paints a confusing picture, where there is neither consensus on whether participatory planning works, nor theory to explain uneven impact. How and when can participatory planning bring local voices into decision-making? Can this make planning more equitable, build resilience and improve governance? To what extent does the effectiveness of interventions depend on local context? Beyond formal design, to what extent does success rely on discretion by local implementers?

This policy brief aims to address those questions by examining Ward Development Planning (WDP), a participatory planning model funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and implemented in northern Kenya from 2017 to 2022. Through mixed methods, combining an evaluation, survey experiments, and in-depth case studies across five counties in Kenya, we not only evaluate the overall impact of WDP, but also use case studies and survey experiments, to examine causal mechanisms to explain why WDP had uneven impacts.

How climate information services (CIS) can help pastoralists in the Horn of Africa

Claire Bedelian — 2024-07-04

This policy brief explores the challenges pastoralists face when using climate information services and outlines key considerations for scaling these up in drylands.

Despite the growing availability of climate information services (CIS), which could help pastoralists adapt to climate change, their use remains limited among pastoralists in the Horn of Africa. Why is this the case? Why do pastoralists not make more use of CIS? How can we make CIS more relevant and accessible to them? In this policy brief, we review the context of CIS for pastoralists in the Horn of Africa and draw on case studies from Ethiopia and Kenya of CIS initiatives in pastoral areas.

The brief looks at the specific needs of pastoralists for climate information, the barriers they face to use such information, and how to develop and deliver CIS tailored for pastoralists.

Our findings show that: Pastoralists face barriers to access and use CIS, including mobility, remoteness, weak telecommunications infrastructure, low mobile phone ownership, low literacy, and gender disparities; Pastoralists will use climate information if, and when, it is timely, localised, context-specific, includes traditional knowledge, and is shared through trusted social networks; Digital services may not always effectively reach pastoralists. Using multiple dissemination channels, combining digital tools with channels pastoralists already use, is beneficial; and Compared to men, women have different needs for climate information, often have less access to mobile phones, and use different channels to receive information.

The results emphasise several key considerations when designing and delivering tailored CIS for pastoralists: To tailor CIS for pastoralists, we need better understanding of the local context, social networks, language, infrastructure, technology and literacy levels. This is best done jointly with pastoralists leading; Using CIS is only one way pastoralists adapt to climate change. CIS should be integrated into broader adaptation; Pastoralists' access to land, inputs and finance needs to be stronger if pastoralists are to make good use of climate information; and Initiatives should be sensitive to gender: we need specific measures to help women pastoralists.

Crowdsourcing data can help monitor drought impacts on food security

Kelvin Mashisia Shikuku — 2024-06-27

Drought is the most significant climatic shock faced by pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in the drylands of sub-Saharan Africa. Early warning information can help households better prepare and respond to drought. However, providing precise early warning information and monitoring indicators of resilience in remote places affected by conflicts, with dispersed markets and poor infrastructure, is hampered by limited ability to gather data using conventional survey methods.

This policy brief shares researchers' experience of using crowdsourced data gathered with the platform KAZNET to observe changes in food security attributable to drought. Researchers further assessed the mechanisms by which drought impacts occur. Uncovering these mechanisms can guide policy-makers to develop strategies to enhance resilience and improve productivity in drought, thereby mitigating food insecurity. Such knowledge can help provide early warning and inform anticipatory action when dealing with shocks.

The key messages are:

Many households experience food insecurity in pastoral areas, even after rainfall improves, as there is a time lag as pasture grows, animals recover, and food and income become available.

Investments in fodder production and storage, market access and linkages, and rangeland management appear to be good options for mitigating the impacts of drought on food security.

Crowdsourcing the collection of high-frequency data is a promising approach for addressing data gaps in drought monitoring, especially in remote pastoral environments. This could help provide early warnings of drought and inform anticipatory action.

Including women data contributors is helpful for gathering information that male contributors might find challenging to collect.

Perceptions of land tenure security in pastoral areas in Marsabit, Kenya

Ken Otieno — 2024-06-27

This report examines land tenure and governance among 550 households in the Waldaa community of northern Marsabit, Kenya, near the Ethiopian border. Pastoral tenure is vested in the collective, where household rights to graze and water livestock coexist with collective rules governing resource use.

For nearly five decades, the Waldaa have retained rights to land and natural resources without formal registration, relying on flexible, overlapping patterns of access that enable pastoralism to thrive. Vulnerable groups, including widows and orphans, report equal rights within the collective.

However, tenure security faces mounting pressures: the Community Land Act (2016) and efforts to register lands, unpredictable weather shortening wet-season grazing, and rising population and settlement. These dynamics risk favouring privatisation of collective lands and intensifying resource conflict.

Findings underscore the importance of community-based governance and strengthening inclusive institutions, with change rooted in participatory dialogue that respects traditional systems.

Collective tenure of pastoral land in Sudan

Hussein M Sulieman — 2024-06-26

Pastoralists in Sudan face persistent land‑tenure insecurity, historically linked to conflict and injustice. Fieldwork in Jabrat Elsheikh, North Kordofan, reveals that dry‑season grazing tenure is collective, governed by unwritten customary rules under tribal authorities.

While pastoralists feel secure in their rights, formal state land laws are absent and largely unknown. Customary systems ensure equal male access and regulate use, exclusion, and transfer, but women remain marginalised. Traditional mechanisms resolve disputes, yet rising populations, farming expansion, and blocked livestock routes threaten mobility and resource access. These pressures risk undermining collective tenure, intensifying competition, and eroding pastoral resilience.

Characterising collective tenure security in pastoral systems in Burkina Faso

Issa Sawadogo — 2024-06-26

Climate change has intensified pressures on grazing in Burkina Faso, with shifting rainfall patterns, shorter rainy seasons, and prolonged dry spells reducing pasture availability. Expansion of cropping, particularly cotton, has further constrained access to land and water for pastoralists.

This report examines pastoral land tenure and governance through the case of Tigre village in Binde commune, Zoundweogo Province. The Wakilé Allah pastoralists, who migrated south in the 1970s and1980s due to northern droughts, now coexist with agro-pastoralists in a region once depopulated by river blindness.

Field interviews and literature review reveal that grazing land, though privately owned, is managed under collective customary rights consistent with the national Land and Rural Orientation Plan (LORP). While widely accepted, tenure security is undermined by agricultural encroachment, weak enforcement, and declining social cohesion. Strengthening pastoral tenure requires legal recognition of customary systems, registration of grazing lands, and locally negotiated charters to balance tradition and protection.

Caractérisation de la sécurité de la tenure collective dans les systèmes pastoraux au Burkina Faso

Issa Sawadogo — 2024-06-26

Ce rapport technique, examine le régime foncier du pastoralisme et sa gouvernance au Burkina Faso. Il se concentre sur les pasteurs ayant migré dans les années 1970 et 1980 du nord vers le sud, poussés par la sécheresse de plus en plus fréquente dans le nord. Les pasteurs cohabitent aujourd'hui avec des agro-pasteurs dans une zone relativement peu peuplée car autrefois frappée par la cécité des rivières, un fléau qui a pris fin avec l'éradication du vecteur de cette maladie, la mouche noire, dans les années 70.

Notre étude passe en revue la littérature sur le pastoralisme et le régime foncier dans le pays, en utilisant le cas du village de Tigré, commune de Bindé, province du Zoundwéogo, dans la région Centre-Sud du Burkina Faso, où nous avons interrogé les pasteurs résidents, les Wakilé Allah.

Nos résultats montrent que les pasteurs utilisent des terres traditionnellement consacrées à l’élevage. Ces terres appartiennent à des propriétaires privés, mais sont gérées en vertu de droits collectifs et coutumiers. Le régime foncier coutumier s'aligne sur Loi nationale d’orientation foncière et de développement rural (LORP), qui réserve les terres au pâturage.

Bien que le système coutumier de gestion des pâturages soit largement accepté, des inquiétudes subsistent quant à la sécurité foncière, menacée par la perte de la cohésion sociale, des espaces pastoraux non délimités, l'empiètement de l'agriculture et l'application inadéquate de la loi.

Pour répondre aux menaces qui pèsent sur le régime foncier des pasteurs, il faut trouver un équilibre qui préserve les pratiques traditionnelles tout en assurant une protection juridique grâce à la gestion et à l'enregistrement des terres. Les pâturages doivent être enregistrés au nom du groupe pastoral ou de la commune, une étape qui comprendra l'élaboration de règles d'utilisation des pâturages et d'une charte foncière locale.

Understanding and characterising collective tenure and tenure security in pastoral systems

Magda Nassef — 2024-03-31

Land‑tenure insecurity is a central driver of farmer–herder conflict in Africa, yet pastoral collective tenure remains poorly understood compared to settled land systems.

This study examines group and individual tenure security among pastoralists in Burkina Faso, Sudan, and Kenya. Despite lacking formal documentation, communities view themselves as rightful landholders.

Findings reveal that shrinking rangelands, blocked mobility, and intensified competition increase the likelihood of violent conflict. The complexity of interacting causes underscores pastoral tenure insecurity as a key factor. Formal recognition of communal rights in rangelands emerges as a critical pathway to legitimacy, enforceability, and conflict mitigation.

Comprendre et caractériser la tenure collective et la sécurité foncière dans les systèmes pastoraux

Magda Nassef — 2024-03-31

L’insécurité foncière a été mise en évidence comme un facteur principal dans les conflits entre agriculteurs et éleveurs. Alors que la tenure et la sécurité foncière des utilisateurs de terres sédentaires ont été bien documentées, la tenure collective pastorale et les degrés de sécurité foncière dans les systèmes pastoraux ne sont pas aussi bien compris.

Pour étudier cette question, nous avons examiné les systèmes de tenure collective au Burkina Faso, au Soudan et au Kenya. Deux niveaux de tenure et de sécurité foncière ont été pris en compte : celui du groupe et celui des individus au sein du groupe, en reconnaissant que les groupes ne sont pas homogènes. Aucune des communautés pastorales étudiées ne détient de documents officiels pour ses terres, mais elles se considèrent comme des propriétaires légitimes.

Pour guider la recherche, nous avons posé les questions suivantes :

Comment les communautés pastorales et leurs membres accèdent-ils aux pâturages? Quelles sont les conditions de cet accès Que se passe-t-il en cas de conflit ?
Quels sont les aspects du régime foncier les plus importants pour les communautés pastorales ?
Quels sont les principaux facteurs d’insécurité foncière pour les communautés pastorales et leurs membres ?

Shepherd’s eye in the sky

Sophie Turnbull — 2024-03-29

This technical brief introduces AfriScout, a digital application that provides pastoralists with near real-time visual data on rangeland conditions using satellite imagery and mobile technology. The application shows great potential for mitigating some of the challenges pastoralists face by providing them with information critical to enhancing their ability to make more informed decisions.

The brief also provides some key findings from a baseline survey, the results of which illustrate how AfriScout could improve activities crucial to successful pastoralism. These include enabling pastoralists to make better decisions about herd management, rangeland conditions and strategic migration. Before fully implementing AfriScout, SPARC partners Causal Design and AfriScout carried out a baseline survey of a sample of households in southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya.

The data from the survey provided insights on the scope of key risk factors pastoralists in these areas face. They include herd size and condition, migration patterns, conflict, and access to information sources leveraged to inform decisions. Though it is too early to draw concrete conclusions about the application’s effectiveness, baseline data from a sub-sample of pastoralists who have already used AfriScout suggest its potential to create positive outcomes and improve decision-making for greater success. The results of the survey also illustrate that pastoralists have positively received AfriScout and consider it reliable and easy to access.

Other findings also indicate the potential utility and relevance of the application as a timely source of reliable, climate-based information to improve pastoralists’ migration and rangeland management decisions.

Impacts of Naira redesign on livelihoods in Hayin Ade and Wuro Bappate, Abuja, Nigeria

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2024-03-27

This policy brief explores how Nigeria’s Naira redesign policy has deepened financial hardship for pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in two rural communities, highlighting the need for support with digital access, ID registration and financial literacy to ensure inclusion in the formal economy.

Pastoralism and agriculture in conflicts and crises

2024-02-29

This report summarises three years of SPARC's work. Chapter 1 reviews SPARC’s research so far into critical knowledge gaps and outlines how this research has been designed to generate change in perceptions, policy-making and aid programming. Chapter 2 looks at the impacts of SPARC’s work so far: how knowledge is being used to support different actors to engage more effectively in the drylands, and how it is being embedded into wider conversations in the humanitarian, climate and development sectors. Finally, Chapter 3 considers the role and importance of SPARC’s research in the years ahead, in shaping longer-term programmes, policies and investments that are sensitive to the unique needs and issues affecting the drylands.

What does it mean to take context seriously for credit and microfinance?

Adam Pain — 2024-01-31

Informal credit is one of the most important economic institutions for most of Afghanistan’s population. Yet between 2001 and 2021, aid practitioners largely failed to take informal credit seriously. This meant that interventions were uninformed about how the rural economy actually worked, and did not engage with one of the most important institutions in the survival of the rural poor. Opportunities were also lost to monitor changes in people’s degree of need.

This brief looks at the importance of informal credit systems in Afghanistan and how engaging with this context might have changed the focus or scope of aid interventions. It is part of a series on the importance of taking context seriously in aid programming.

What does it mean to take context seriously for engaging in markets?

Adam Pain — 2024-01-31

This policy brief argues that aid to Afghanistan from 2001–2021 relied on flawed assumptions about how markets functioned, leading to missed opportunities for more grounded and effective economic interventions. It is part of a series arguing that aid efforts in the country missed opportunities for more effective, context-aware interventions.

Throughout 2001–2021, many millions of dollars were spent on an economic transformation of Afghanistan that never happened. Investment was based on an implicit theory of how markets worked and how markets could drive the economy, which did not match the reality on the ground. Economic and agricultural development policy can’t work without understanding how Afghan markets work.

This policy brief looks at how understanding Afghanistan's market context might have changed the focus or scope of aid interventions. It is part of a series on the importance of taking context seriously in aid programming.

What does it mean to take context seriously for post-harvest processing and storage?

Adam Pain — 2024-01-31

Support for food processing and post-harvest storage could contribute significantly to food security and nutrition, but this was neglected in aid programming in the 2001–2021 period. Instead, the few interventions in the sector focused on expensive technological packages for larger private sector companies, with no tangible benefits for those who were food insecure.

This policy brief looks at post-harvest losses in Afghanistan and how engaging with this context might have changed the focus or scope of aid interventions. It is part of a series on the importance of taking context seriously in aid programming.

What does it mean to take context seriously for rural differentiation?

Adam Pain — 2024-01-31

From 2001 to 2021, the development vision for Afghanistan was based on a market-driven transformation of agriculture. Billions of dollars were spent with little success, and with even fewer benefits being enjoyed by the poor and those who were food insecure. A significant reason for this failure is that a single model was used of how the rural economy works, leading to national programmes that were inappropriate for most of the population.

There was an unwillingness to consider the huge diversity in local economies, in households within those economies, or in individuals in extended family households.

This policy brief examines how a one-size-fits-all approach to agricultural development in Afghanistan overlooked the diversity of rural economies and households, limiting the effectiveness and equity of aid investments. It is part of a series arguing that aid efforts in the country missed opportunities for more effective, context-aware interventions.

What does it mean to take context seriously for village-level governance?

Adam Pain — 2024-01-31

Between 2001 and 2021, community development councils (CDCs) were the vehicle through which Afghanistan was supposed to be transformed through grassroots inclusive participation in governance. Billions of dollars were spent on this new organisational arrangement, which was the vehicle delivering the government’s ‘flagship’ development programme. But CDCs had a mixed record as a conduit for funds for local projects. They failed totally to build a new, democratic Afghanistan or greater state legitimacy.

This policy brief looks at the importance of understanding village-level governance structures in Afghanistan and how engaging with this context might have changed the focus or scope of aid interventions. It is part of a series on the importance of taking context seriously in aid programming.

Ten traps to avoid if aid programming is serious about engaging with context

Simon Levine — 2024-01-24

Following the overthrow of the first Taliban regime in Afghanistan in 2001, international donors made investments amounting to billions of dollars over the next 20 years in an almost unparalleled effort to transform the country. Studies of the impacts of these investments have broadly concluded that the results were very disappointing. Despite gains in health and education outcomes, little was achieved in terms of reducing levels of poverty and food insecurity.

This report, with accompanying summary, explains 10 traps that practitioners and donors must avoid if aid is to engage thoughtfully with its context. Some pitfalls are more foundational in that they relate to the basic design of policies and strategies, while others relate more to programme implementation and monitoring. But they are all inter-linked and mutually reinforcing. We draw on examples from Afghanistan because the traps – and the implications of falling into them – could so easily be identified there.

However, these same failings have been identified in the aid system globally, even beyond the fragile and conflict-affected places that are the particular concern of this research. This report will help you to understand the traps and learn how to avoid them, wherever you are working. This research is accompanied by five briefs that will help decision makers integrate a deeper understanding of Afghanistan into their work. These briefs focus on village-level governance structures , informal credit , rural differentiation , post-harvest storage and processing and engaging in markets.

Faced with floods

Alex Humphrey — 2023-12-21

Conflict and climate shocks are reshaping pastoral and agro‑pastoral livelihood systems across South Sudan. Prolonged and widespread flooding has devastated crops and livestock, forcing households to reorient their livelihood strategies in Unity State and beyond. Yet evidence remains limited on how pastoralists and agro‑pastoralists are adapting, and whether these shifts represent temporary coping mechanisms or signal permanent transformations in pastoral systems.

This report addresses these knowledge gaps by examining livelihood portfolio changes among affected households in Unity State. It explores donor and implementer concerns about the future viability of pastoralism, including prospects for recovery, the likelihood of resuming pastoral production, and the timeframes required for rebuilding resilience.

Findings highlight both the volatility of pastoral livelihoods under climate and conflict pressures and the need for adaptive, context‑sensitive support that aligns with communities’ evolving strategies in the face of uncertainty.

Aligned climate drivers and potential impacts on food security in Ethiopia in 2024

Adrian Cullis — 2023-12-07

El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) climate phenomena drive global seasonal rainfall anomalies. In Ethiopia, these anomalies are most pronounced when negative or positive ENSO and IOD phases align. The current El Niño and positive IOD phase alignment threatens heavy spring rains and flooding in Ethiopia’s southern pastoral areas and drought in the central and northern highlands.

Millions of people in the country already need humanitarian assistance because of multiple conflicts, drought and floods. Ethiopia can ill-afford a further spike in numbers. Given the strong association between such spikes and previous ENSO and IOD alignments, this policy brief recommends that the Ethiopia Disaster Risk Management Commission establish a specialist ENSO–IOD facility. Supported by its international partners, this facility can plan for the impact of a drought in 2024 in the central and northern highlands and estimate and resource the additional amount of humanitarian assistance required.

A rural green transition in the G5 Sahel

Steve Wiggins — 2023-12-07

The transition to a green agrifood system could create more than 8 million additional, full-time jobs in the countries of the G5 Sahel by 2030. The countries of the G5 Sahel need to make a green transition in their agricultural and rural economies to counter climate change and make farming and herding more sustainable.

Six areas of transition are already underway and are making a critical impact in greening the agrifood system: a transition to renewable rural energy, especially solar power; expanding small-scale irrigation; switching to climate-smart and environmentally sustainable agriculture; restoring common lands; creating fisheries; and recycling rural waste.

In some activities, such as soil and water conservation, the Sahel is already a world leader. In others, such as solar power, the Sahel has the potential to lead the world. Much of the change needed does not depend on the state: private and collective efforts will drive change. The public role is to support and facilitate, not direct. Conservation of fields, pastures and commons in the rural Sahel generates benefits far beyond the villages: international finance should help pay for investments.

This policy brief, and accompanying summary, is based on Green jobs in agrifood systems: setting a vision for youth in the Sahel , by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and ODI thanks to the contribution of the German Federal Ministry of Agriculture (BMEL).

Findings from field studies of post-harvest storage and processing in Afghanistan

Ihsanullah Ghafoori — 2023-12-07

Post-harvest storage and food processing have been largely overlooked in Afghanistan’s agricultural rehabilitation agenda since 2001, with limited investments focused on refrigerated facilities for urban markets rather than rural food security.

This study, conducted by SPARC and the Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit, engaged 47 households across 18 villages in Laghman, Herat, and Badakhshan provinces to document existing and improved storage practices.

Findings show that grain staples are typically stored with low losses, while perishable crops suffer high losses, compelling households to sell surpluses at harvest when prices are lowest and repurchase later at higher costs. Women play a critical but under-recognized role in post-harvest management.

Results highlight the need to prioritise improved storage for food security, design interventions sensitive to agro-ecological and social contexts, and ensure inclusive access for vulnerable groups. Expanding storage for smallholders must emphasise subsistence needs alongside market engagement.

Une transition verte rurale dans le G5 Sahel

Steve Wiggins — 2023-12-07

Cette note d’information présente des mesures concrètes que peuvent prendre les ministres du G5 Sahel, les agences d’aide, les bailleurs de fonds et les chercheurs pour favoriser une transition verte rurale et élargir les opportunités d’emploi pour les jeunes dans la région.

Building forward better

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2023-12-03

People living in places affected by fragility and/or violent conflict are among the most vulnerable in the world to climate change. In these situations, a natural hazard – such as a flood or a drought – can quickly trigger disasters and exacerbate protracted crises.

Individuals themselves cannot meaningfully be expected to adapt to climate change. What is needed is for actors in conflict-affected countries to work together to address the drivers of fragility, and enable peace, stability and systemic resilience – so that people have more options to manage challenges and embrace opportunities. We call this Building Forward Better.

Building Forward Better will require a transformation in the way humanitarian, development, peacebuilding, disaster risk management and climate adaptation actors work in fragile and conflict-affected settings. This Framing note argues for a new way of thinking about and delivering the climate agenda in fragile and conflict-affected situations: one in which programmes and investments by all actors are linked, layered and sequenced in such a way that they mutually reinforce and support each other, and are informed by a clear understanding of the drivers of conflict and climate risks.

The role of development finance institutions in addressing food security in vulnerable contexts

Alberto Lemma — 2023-11-20

Food security and economic development in fragile contexts are undermined by conflict, instability, and weak investment opportunities. This report examines the role of development finance institutions (DFIs) in 14 high‑risk countries (the “10+1” group) identified by the UK FCDO.

DFIs can support food security by raising productivity across economies or directly investing in agriculture and agribusiness. Yet only a small share of DFI funds reach these contexts, constrained by risk, scale, and transaction costs.

The study highlights opportunities in food value chains and transport infrastructure, while recommending blended finance, localised funds, and stronger conditions for investible enterprises.

How can development partners support food security in protracted crises?

Simon Levine — 2023-11-16

What does meaningful support to bolster food security look like in countries affected by conflict and protracted crises?

This brief offers five key lessons from Supporting Pastoralism and Agriculture in Recurrent and Protracted Crises' (SPARC) research in the Sahel, Syria and Yemen: mostly semi-arid areas subject to protracted crises and conflict, sometimes exacerbated by natural disasters, where food crises and food emergencies threaten.

Key insights include:

In most countries, domestic issues are more critical than external factors in determining food prices. This requires a shift of focus away from international commodity price increases and wars, towards domestic factors that determine food prices, such as local food production.
Support long-term food security with different solutions. There is no one-size-fits-all approach to bolstering the long-term food security of countries. When looking to build the long-term food security of countries, SPARC’s individual country studies of Somalia, Yemen and Ethiopia demonstrate how much local context matters, dominating any attempt to identify general patterns. Support markets and trade, even in protracted conflict. In protracted crises, households and local communities largely get by through their own ability to cope – rather than depending on outside help, despite commendable efforts by humanitarian agencies. As such, more effort should be directed towards what allows local economies to function.
Recognise the possibilities, but also the limits, of anticipatory action. Any hope of preventing crises relies on a realistic appreciation of what can and cannot be achieved by different anticipatory actions and the time horizons that apply. Expecting anticipatory assistance from humanitarian action to achieve broader development – such as developing new economic opportunities and more resilient livelihoods – is hopelessly unrealistic – and unfair on humanitarian agencies and their staff.
Overlap agendas on food security, poverty, resilience and climate change. Ending food insecurity requires a mix of instruments which tackle underlying, structural crises. Tackling these long-term drivers of food insecurity is also critical in the context of climate change, which is exacerbating threats faced by people already living in chronically food-insecure situations. Actors from different disciplines – poverty, resilience, crisis and climate change – must speak a common language, share common goals and sit round the same table. Moreover, aid actors need to have long-term strategies that support the long-term preferences of people facing crisis, and to ensure that efforts which help people meet their short-term needs fit coherently into longer-term plans to build climate resilience.

Climate-resilient development for Somalia

Manisha Gulati — 2023-10-06

Somalia’s designation as a fragile state by the World Bank underscores its acute vulnerability to climate extremes and long-term change. Despite this, Somalia receives disproportionately low levels of climate finance compared to other fragile contexts. Current adaptation priorities remain fragmented, focusing largely on short-term hazards rather than anticipating future shifts in temperature, rainfall, water supply, and livelihoods.

This technical report draws on climate projection analysis, risk assessment, and extensive stakeholder consultations to identify barriers and enablers for climate action. Findings highlight missed opportunities in accessing and effectively deploying bilateral and multilateral funding, while also pointing to emerging entry points for development, humanitarian, and government actors.

Strengthening institutional capacity within the Ministry of Environment and Climate Change, improving climate data acquisition through SWALIM, and enhancing coordination across partners and accredited agencies are critical steps. Aligning adaptation priorities with Somalia’s broader development agenda is essential for advancing climate-resilient pathways.

Gestion du risque climatique au Tchad

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2023-09-30

Les années 2050 sont marquées par une mousson qui pourrait être plus affectée par le changement climatique ; les années 2030 sont marquées par un horizon temporel déterminé pour les politiques existantes – à quoi le Tchad, un pays particulièrement vulnérable au changement climatique, pourrait-il être confronté dans les décennies à venir?

Avec de faibles niveaux de développement, une population principalement rurale dépendant des cultures (en grande partie pluviales) et de l'élevage, et une population en croissance rapide (gonflée par les réfugiés des pays voisins), le tout étant à l'origine des impacts climatiques actuels et des risques futurs liés au changement climatique, la vulnérabilité climatique du Tchad est susceptible de continuer à croître.

En compilant la couverture actuelle des services de base, nous évaluons les vulnérabilités et l'exposition au climat et nous les extrapolons aux années 2030 et 2050. En combinant ces scénarios avec les changements prévus en matière de température et de précipitations, nous identifions les risques climatiques futurs pour l'agriculture, l'élevage et les zones urbaines. Cet exposé qualitatif de haut niveau de certains des risques futurs liés au changement climatique au Tchad s'appuie sur des statistiques socio-économiques, la politique gouvernementale et la littérature – tant universitaire que les rapports d'agences humanitaires et de développement.

Notes techniques et politiques sur le financement climatique

Abdrahmane Wane — 2023-09-27

Les pays de l'Union économique et monétaire ouest-africaine (UEMOA) - Bénin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinée-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Sénégal et Togo - restent parmi les nations les plus exposées aux effets du changement climatique. Ces pays sont également parmi les plus faibles émetteurs de CO2 au niveau mondial. Des investissements importants dans les mesures d'adaptation et d'atténuation du changement climatique sont nécessaires pour surmonter cette inégalité structurelle et pour équilibrer les financements requis par les pays de l'UEMOA avec les volumes disponibles et accessibles.

En s'appuyant sur les stratégies des bailleurs de fonds qui tendent à être étroitement liées à la vulnérabilité au changement climatique et à la fragilité des États, ce rapport, accompagné d'une synthèse, a procédé à une analyse différenciée des questions de financement climatique en se concentrant sur trois niveaux : l'ensemble de la région de l'UEMOA, les pays côtiers et les pays sahéliens de l'UEMOA.

Financing climate adaptation in fragile states

Adriana Quevedo — 2023-09-14

This policy brief highlights Somalia’s acute climate vulnerability and limited climate finance despite ongoing drought and humanitarian crises, outlining recommendations to improve access to and effectiveness of climate-related funding.

How can Africa manage the transboundary climate crises it faces?

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2023-08-14

Transboundary climate risks have the potential to set back economic development gains, jeopardise trade and food security and impact infrastructure investments in Africa. Previous SPARC research has found that African policymakers are already aware of and concerned by a number of transboundary climate risks. What are some examples of these risks, and how can they be managed? This policy brief, produced for the nineteenth ordinary session of the African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN) in August 2023, highlights five significant transboundary climate risks in Africa – biophysical, financial, trade, people-centred and geopolitical – that urgently need consideration for management.

The authors draw on real examples from countries across Africa to show how transboundary climate risks, and the ways in which they are handled, create significant impacts for other countries. The brief also provides some practical recommendations for how African regional economic communities and their Member States can work together to manage these risks, in keeping with existing climate policy frameworks and objectives. The policy brief was produced in collaboration with the African Group of Negotiators Experts Support (AGNES) and Adaptation Without Borders (AWB).

Participatory planning in Kenya’s drylands

Claire Bedelian — 2023-07-06

This policy brief outlines the Ward Development Planning model – a participatory planning approach focused on developing ward-level development plans in Kenya – and offers lessons and recommendations for scaling up participatory, locally grounded approaches to support resilience-focused development.

Causes of farmer-herder conflicts in Africa

Magda Nassef — 2023-07-06

Conflict between farmers and livestock herders in Africa has received much attention in recent years, with attendant concerns about increasing and intensifying levels of conflict. This systematic scoping review was based on an approach designed to minimise selection bias using transparent and reproducible methods.

The aim was to gain insights into the causes of farmer–herder conflict and uncover any trends and potential gaps in understanding. A second aim was to ascertain to what degree conflict is connected to land and natural resources and to what extent land tenure insecurity is cited as a cause of conflict and how this is discussed. A third aim was to understand to what degree and in what capacity women and youth are mentioned in research on farmer–herder conflict.

Farming after fighting

Steve Wiggins — 2023-07-06

Civil conflicts across the Global South have intensified since the 2010s, raising questions about how agriculture rebounds after prolonged violence. A review of six post‑conflict settings, Cambodia, Mozambique, Peru’s southern highlands, Rwanda, Sierra Leone and northern Uganda, shows that war inflicted severe losses on rural populations, destroying lives, assets, infrastructure and public services. Despite this, agricultural recovery was rapid in all cases except northern Uganda. Growth reflected both a rebound effect as farmers returned to abandoned land and sustained post‑conflict expansion, with production often surpassing pre‑war levels. Smallholders drove much of this growth, even where governments provided minimal support due to competing priorities and limited resources.

Causes des conflits entre agriculteurs et éleveurs en Afrique

Magda Nassef — 2023-07-06

Ce rapport présente les résultats d’un examen systématique de la recherche sur les conflits entre agriculteurs et éleveurs en Afrique, afin d’identifier les principaux facteurs de ces conflits ainsi que les lacunes de la prise en compte des femmes et des jeunes dans les études existantes.

SPARC research framework

2023-06-29

Published in 2023, this Research Framework guided SPARC interventions between 2023 and 2025.

Nigeria: Some land tenure insecurity issues in Hayin Ade and Wuro Bappate

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2023-04-12

SPARC and its partner the Fulbe Development and Cultural Organization (FUDECO) want to improve understanding of the challenges that pastoralists and agropastoralists view as most critical in their own words, how these challenges impact their lives and livelihoods, what coping and adaptive strategies they currently employ and what additional assistance they would like in order to improve their futures.

This issue brief examines land tenure insecurity in two Nigerian communities, Hayin Ade in Kaduna State and Wuro Alhaji Idrisa Bappate in Taraba State, showing how local dynamics – from illegal mining to land speculation – intersect with weak governance and legal awareness to threaten pastoral and agropastoral livelihoods.

Unravelling the knot

Kamran Hakiman — 2023-04-06

This issue brief examines the application of the SHARED framework, assessing both the enabling conditions that support its effective implementation and the constraints that limit its broader impact. By highlighting the interplay of contextual factors, the analysis provides insight into where the framework has achieved success and where structural or systemic challenges remain, offering a balanced perspective on its potential and limitations.

Anticipatory action in advance of ‘wicked crises’

Simon Levine — 2023-03-31

In 2020, the SPARC research programme convened panels of Somali farmers and pastoralists to examine how crisis‑affected communities engage in anticipatory action when faced with drought warnings. Focusing on Somaliland, Puntland, and the Middle Shabelle region, the study explored the timing of humanitarian strategies alongside the rationale behind local decision‑making earlier in the crisis trajectory.

Findings reveal that viable anticipatory actions were limited, constrained primarily by the lack of alternative strategies within the local economy. Communities often planned for average rainfall despite forecasts of poor rains, reflecting rational choices shaped by livelihood realities and information networks.

The report underscores that effective support requires long‑term investment in expanding local options, integrating trusted seasonal forecasting into planning, and recognising the diverse trajectories of crises and livelihoods. It cautions against singular anticipatory instruments or funding mechanisms in contexts of 'wicked crises', advocating instead for plural, flexible approaches that align with community realities.

Food prices in Mali and Sudan

Steve Wiggins — 2023-03-31

This study examines staple food price dynamics in Mali and Sudan between 2019 and mid‑2022, a period marked by global spikes in wheat, maize, oil, and fertiliser prices. Despite international pressures, findings show that domestic factors largely drove cereal price increases, which more than doubled in both countries.

In Mali, poor harvests due to low rainfall and conflict, compounded by the ECOWAS trade embargo restricting fertiliser supplies, pushed prices higher. In Sudan, extreme domestic inflation explained most of the rise. Coping strategies included dietary economising, cutting small luxuries, and increasing labour, while the poorest households resorted to wild foods and begging.

Public responses, such as government subsidies, cash transfers, food parcels, and nutrition interventions were limited relative to the hardship. Policy recommendations include expanding irrigation, adopting drought‑resistant crops, stabilising Sudan’s macroeconomy, exempting agricultural inputs from embargoes, and strengthening social protection. Addressing structural drivers is essential to mitigate vulnerability and ensure food security in fragile contexts.

Dynamism in the drylands

Alex Humphrey — 2023-01-31

Over the past four years, South Sudan has endured consecutive flooding that has submerged vast areas, displaced communities, and intensified food insecurity. Pastoralists, central to the country’s livelihoods, have been among the worst affected, facing widespread livestock loss, forced migration in search of pasture and markets, and escalating violence through cattle raiding and revenge attacks.

This report draws on two years of interviews with 60 pastoralist households to examine how herders are adapting to climate- and conflict-related shocks. Findings reveal that pastoralists demonstrate remarkable flexibility and resilience, yet face mounting uncertainty about the long-term viability of pastoralism in the drylands.

The study argues that aid interventions must align with pastoralists’ adaptive strategies, supporting their inherent capacity to navigate volatility. By centering pastoral voices, the report highlights pathways for more responsive and equitable support to dryland communities confronting climate and conflict crises.

Somalia: drought and rising costs take hold

Leigh Mayhew — 2023-01-18

The economic, environmental, political and social contexts at the local, national and regional levels are continually evolving, and regional to global events such as the economic repercussions of Covid-19 are being felt at the local level.

In this brief, we aimed to capture how pastoralists, agropastoralists and farmers are coping with and adapting their livelihoods to this dynamism.

The key messages are:

Inflation is affecting the ability of pastoralists, agropastoralists and farmers to afford basic food items and livelihood inputs. The economic impact on farming and pastoral livelihoods is having a knock-on effect for other economic activities, which depend on their trade.
Interviewees described actions that are predominately short-term coping and survival strategies, rather than long-term adaptation to mitigate shocks being experienced.
Whilst the accumulation of debt is part of economic life in Somalia, our interviews were unable to uncover if the current level of borrowing is beyond people’s means or what the long-term implications of this borrowing means for households. Answering these questions will be important for understanding household recovery.
A lack of violence in the communities interviewed should be noted for future lessons of mitigating future conflict risk. Despite the pressures that people are facing, community-based support and conflict resolution mechanisms are helping to manage tensions.

Transboundary climate risks to African dryland livestock economies

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2023-01-13

Pastoralism and the livestock sector are central to the economies of African dryland countries, contributing between 5% and 30% of national GDP through production and cross‑border trade. Rooted in mobility strategies that historically aligned with rainfall and vegetation, pastoral systems have long provided disaster‑resilient livelihoods, reducing resource degradation, fertilising soils, and safeguarding herds against drought, disease, and conflict.

Today, however, the adaptive capacity of pastoral groups and livestock value chains is increasingly constrained. Beyond climate change, non‑climate pressures—including urban expansion, agricultural encroachment, and mineral and fossil fuel exploration—fragment rangelands and disrupt traditional routes.

This brief examines how these intersecting drivers generate compounding transboundary climate risks (TCRs), from livestock disease outbreaks to trade disruptions and resource degradation. It further highlights how management options at local, national, and regional levels are shaped, and at times undermined, by contradictory socioeconomic, mobility, agricultural, adaptation, and resource governance policies.

Risques climatiques transfrontaliers pour les économies d’élevage dans les zones arides africaines

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2023-01-13

Le pastoralisme et le secteur de l'élevage, y compris le commerce transfrontalier d'animaux vivants et de produits d'origine animale, représentent entre 5 et 30 % du produit intérieur brut (PIB) national des pays d'Afrique arides. La production de bétail utilise un mélange de stratégies le long d'un continuum de mobilité, historiquement adopté pour s'adapter aux environnements des zones arides. Historiquement, les routes du bétail suivaient les pluies et la végétation. Ce mouvement réduisait le risque de dégradation des ressources, contribuait à la fertilisation des sols grâce au fumier et constituait un mécanisme de subsistance résistant aux catastrophes naturelles, grâce auquel les troupeaux étaient protégés de la sécheresse, des maladies et des conflits.

Pourtant, la capacité des différents groupes pastoraux et des points de la chaîne de valeur de l’élevage à s'adapter aux aléas du changement climatique qui se propagent au-delà des frontières est mise à mal par un certain nombre de changements non climatiques. Les parcours pastoraux et les routes du bétail au sein des pays et à travers ceux-ci sont de plus en plus empiétés et fragmentés par les villes, l'agriculture et l'exploration des minéraux et des combustibles fossiles. Cette note explore la manière dont ces facteurs et d'autres facteurs non climatiques se combinent au changement climatique pour générer des risques climatiques transfrontaliers (RCT) multiples et cumulatifs, allant des maladies du bétail aux perturbations du commerce en passant par la dégradation des ressources.

La note thématique souligne comment les options existantes pour la gestion des RCT aux niveaux local, national et régional sont à la fois aidées et entravées par des politiques socio-économiques, de mobilité humaine, d'agriculture, d'adaptation et de gestion des ressources naturelles parfois contradictoires aux niveaux sous-national, national et régional.

Innovation in governance

Kamran Hakiman — 2022-10-06

Building resilience among pastoralists and agro‑pastoralists in drylands requires navigating systemic challenges within fragile political systems. This report examines the Stakeholder Approach to Risk Informed and Evidence Based Decision Making (SHARED), a framework designed to integrate technical expertise with contextual knowledge of local political economy, society, and ecology. Applied since 2014 across Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali, Niger, and Somalia, SHARED emphasises inclusive, adaptive engagement to ensure decisions are technically sound, contextually appropriate, and locally legitimate.

Findings highlight that fragile and conflict‑affected environments benefit most from evidence‑based practices, yet resist simple adoption of external “best practices” due to weak institutions, climate pressures, and instability. SHARED demonstrates how multi‑stakeholder processes can shift political possibilities, support adaptive management, and embed evidence within local realities.

The study cautions that success depends not only on frameworks but on implementers’ responsiveness and motivation, underscoring the importance of process innovation for resilience in complex dryland contexts.

Livelihoods and markets in protracted conflict

Steve Wiggins — 2022-09-29

This evidence review examines the impacts of protracted conflict on livelihoods and food security across 11 countries and assesses the effectiveness of responses to economic and social harm in varying contexts.

Livelihoods, conflict and meditation

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2022-09-29

This report from SPARC and the Fulbe Development and Cultural Organization (FUDECO) provides a snapshot of livelihood challenges and conflict dynamics in two Nigerian communities, showing how land pressure, grazing restrictions, illegal mining and insecurity are affecting pastoral and agropastoral livelihoods in the aftermath of COVID-19.

Key findings

Inequitable access to land and resources is continuing to lead to land disputes across interview sites. Population growth, government policy favouring crop production, grazing bans, and shifts towards more agropastoral livelihoods were all seen as reasons for a decline in suitable grazing areas.
In Wuro Bappate, increasing illegal mining activity is also contributing to land scarcity. While understanding who is behind this activity and the extent of its impacts warrants further exploration, illegal mining is taking place on grazing land, resulting in injuries to livestock and further land disputes.
In Hayin Ade, the decline in land for grazing, as more area is farmed, is forcing pastoralists to move their cattle further afield, exposing them to the increased risk of banditry in neighbouring states. Interviewees reveal that family members had been kidnapped and experienced cattle raiding en route to reserves.
Although interviewees do not describe high levels of conflict, its historical legacy continues to disrupt livelihoods. In Wuro Bappate, the imposition of grazing bans by the government, as a measure to stop land conflicts, is limiting the movements of pastoralists and placing pressure on the grazing areas that remain.
Both interview sites have seen the establishment of vigilante groups to protect property and livestock. The establishment of the Yan Sakai in Hayin Ade received a mixed response from interviewees, with some attributing the fall in incidents of cattle raiding to the group’s formation and others criticising its conduct. In Wuro Bappate, communities have established a small vigilante group in response to attacks from farmers.

Livelihoods, conflict and mediation

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2022-09-29

This longitudinal study explores how pastoralist and agropastoralist households in Somalia experience and adapt to disputes, conflict, and non-conflict shocks. Rather than predefining conflict types, interviews allowed participants to describe disputes encountered over the past five years, including perceived causes and perpetrators.

Findings reveal that consecutive shocks, such as failed rainy seasons, drought, flooding, and Covid-19’s economic repercussions, have eroded crop production, fodder availability, and livestock value, compounding pressures from farmland expansion and reduced grazing areas. These dynamics fuel disputes between farmers and herders, while long-running clan tensions and the presence of armed groups continue to restrict mobility and security.

Despite persistent challenges, interviewees expressed confidence in community-led mediation and dispute resolution, with clan elders and local administrations playing key roles. The study highlights how shocks intersect with conflict dynamics, shaping household livelihood strategies and underscore the importance of adaptive, locally grounded conflict-resolution mechanisms.

Climate adaptation investments in conflict-affected states

Adriana Quevedo — 2022-08-22

This paper aims to influence policy-makers in the climate, humanitarian and peace-building communities of practice, as well as country governments that are facing fragile and conflict-affected situations, to re-think the risks and increase financial allocations to the least developed country (LDC) sub-group of fragile and conflict-affected states (FCAS) that are most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.

Throughout this policy brief it is key to note current understandings of the interplay between climate change and conflict. Climate change can undermine efforts to secure peace and stability, with climate hazards not only directly impacting people and their livelihoods, but also indirectly exacerbating existing conflict and fragility, and in turn creating new conflicts. However, this is highly context specific and poses uncertainties in attribution. Conflict and fragility can increase people’s vulnerability to climate change and constrain their ability to adapt. For example, livelihoods can be lost, reducing the affordability of adaptation, and people often migrate to areas that are more vulnerable to climate risks.

The type and status of conflict and fragility affects the degree of people’s intersecting vulnerabilities to other threats, with the role of conflict as a driver of vulnerability to climate change possibly becoming more important than the role of climate change as a mediating factor in conflict in many contexts. Covid-19 has amplified people’s vulnerabilities in FCAS, limiting people’s access to adequate public services and affecting livelihoods. Therefore there is a need for financial providers of climate-related activities in FCAS to acknowledge the complexities behind localised interplay from the threats of conflict and climate change, and therefore take risk-informed approaches.

Gender in agricultural and pastoral livelihoods in SPARC countries in sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East

Katherine Vincent — 2022-07-06

This report presents the results of a review of gender-related findings in research published over the past five years on agricultural and pastoral livelihoods in SPARC focus countries: Burkina Faso, Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Syria, Uganda and Yemen.

The review of 170 papers aims to characterise the landscape of research, taking into account evidence of geographical variation; the ways in which gender is approached through studies; and the thematic range of knowledge relating to gender and agricultural and pastoral livelihoods.

Obstacles to and opportunities for anticipatory action in Somalia

Lena Weingärtner — 2022-05-19

With increasing interest in anticipatory action, it is becoming more important to understand what can be done, and when, to reduce or mitigate expected crisis impacts. The longitudinal learning by SPARC aims to inform that analysis by understanding better what information people have about which challenges may be coming their way, when they use various strategies to prepare for possible difficulties, and what constraints they face at different times.

This SPARC brief shares learning from regular interviews with a panel of households, including pastoralists, farmers and small-business owners in Somaliland, Puntland and South-Central Somalia. Initially, interviewing and analysis focused on the impacts of Covid-19 on Somali pastoralists and farmers in early 2020. Following warnings in late 2020 of a likely drought, the focus of interviewing shifted to how people were seeing the threat of drought and what they were doing as a result, to better understand the implications for anticipatory action. Respondents included pastoralists, agropastoralists, and farmers in rural and urban areas in Burao (Togdheer region, Somaliland), Galkayo (Mudug region, Puntland) and Jowhar (Middle Shebelle region, South West state).

The paper highlights these key findings:

The national emergency reached at the end of 2021 developed slowly as several shocks combined - locusts, the economic impacts of Covid-19 and three successive poor rainy seasons. Other more local shocks, such as riverine floods, exacerbated difficulties further;
Community networks are critical conduits of early warning information, particularly about floods and locusts. They also supported individual and joint actions to anticipate and respond to shocks;
People with different livelihood strategies (including pastoralists, agropastoralists and farmers) took different measures in an attempt to counter these threats. The timing of such actions varied in different parts of the country making it harder to design and deliver support for people’s anticipatory actions;
Aid actors engaging in anticipatory action should support and establish communication with communities’ own anticipatory initiatives before crises threaten, to ensure assistance can be relevant and timely.

Making the concept of resilience in the Sahel more useful

Simon Levine — 2022-04-21

This issue brief critiques how ‘resilience’ is often discussed and operationalised in the Sahel, arguing that abstract language and technical framing obscure real challenges. It calls for grounded, problem-driven analysis and cross-sector collaboration to make resilience efforts more effective and scalable.

Key messages:

Most of the people who need to contribute to supporting resilience in the Sahel do not use the label ‘resilience’ for theirwork.
Creating the policies and investments needed is a huge and collective endeavour, involving economists, agriculturalscientists, sociologists, market and health specialists, experts in social protection and humanitarian action, and manyothers. Each national government is responsible for the vision of what would be a sustainable economy and viablelivelihoods in their country.
A common language is needed for policy makers across the different sectors to understand how different contributions combine and what should be prioritised. The current resilience discourse is highly insular and is preventingcommunication with all the efforts to build resilience that do not use that label.
The dominance of resilience-speak has also divorced the resilience sector from the real world in several critical ways.The problem identification (‘more droughts, more vulnerability’) does not relate to the facts; the problem analysisis disconnected from concrete issues in people’s lives; and M&E in resilience language is preventing lessons beinglearned about what actually helps people.
Although investments in resilience are promoted as a way of reducing future humanitarian need, in practice the twoexist in different silos with no common points of reference, metrics or language.
Resilience frameworks and resilience lenses are not the problem. They have a lot to contribute, but they have to beused in radically different ways. They need to be put at the service of collective efforts to improve people’s lives, ratherthan dictating the terms of the efforts of a discrete resilience clique.

Exploring the conflict blind spots in climate adaptation finance in the Sahel and Horn of Africa

Adriana Quevedo — 2022-04-21

This report contributes to SPARC’s mission of strengthening resilience among pastoralists, agro-pastoralists, and farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East. It examines donor approaches to adaptation finance in fragile and conflict-affected situations (FCSs) across the Sahel and East Africa, focusing on whether programmes have been conflict-sensitive and what barriers and enablers shape financing in these contexts.

Drawing on case studies from Mali, Somalia, and Sudan, the analysis finds limited evidence of conflict-sensitive practice. Donor strategies often avoid militia-controlled or highly insecure areas, reflecting risk perceptions rather than proactive conflict analysis. Programme proposals rarely integrated conflict dynamics into design or implementation, focusing instead on operational hazards and “security awareness.”

The study highlights persistent gaps in linking climate change to conflict and fragility, alongside weak incentives to build expertise at this nexus. Findings underscore the need for stronger donor strategies, policies, and human resource capacity to embed conflict sensitivity in adaptation finance.

Impacts of war on food prices and food security in potentially vulnerable countries

Steve Wiggins — 2022-04-19

This policy brief explores how surging global prices for fuel, fertiliser and staple crops – triggered by the war in Ukraine – are compounding existing food security risks in Kenya, Mali, Sudan and Yemen, and reflects on lessons from previous crises.

Innovations for pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in fragile and conflict-affected settings

Christabell Makokha — 2022-01-27

This scoping paper reviews 38 innovations in fragile and conflict-affected settings, to analyse: what products, processes and services are offered; who is innovating and where; how they are distributed; and the business models and partnerships that enable these innovations.

Financing livestock trade

Rupsha Banerjee — 2022-01-18

Africa’s drylands support extensive pastoral and agro‑pastoral systems, with herders marketing livestock through complex chains that connect rural rangelands to urban and export markets.

This report examines the financing of livestock marketing in Kenya, Mali, and Somalia, focusing on traders’ use of formal financial services, such as savings, payments, credit, and insurance, over the past two decades.

Findings reveal that formal finance remains limited in rural drylands, with traders relying primarily on personal savings, family support, and reinvested profits to sustain working capital. Informal lending within marketing chains and social networks continues to play a central role, while mobile payment systems stand out as the most significant innovation, simplifying transfers and expanding access to financial transactions. Few traders access loans from formal intermediaries, underscoring persistent barriers to rural financial inclusion.

The study highlights implications for policy and research on strengthening financial systems to support resilient livestock economies in Africa’s drylands.

A review of tenure and governance in the pastoral lands of East and West Africa

Fiona Flintan — 2021-12-31

Over the past two decades, pastoral lands in Africa have faced mounting pressures from competing land uses, resource scarcity, and governance challenges. Pastoralists and their tenure systems are increasingly unable to withstand these pressures, leading to rangeland fragmentation, reduced mobility, and the loss of critical grazing areas near water sources. These dynamics weaken pastoral production systems, heighten vulnerability to shocks such as droughts, and increase the likelihood of violent conflict over land.

This report examines the persistence of land tenure insecurity in pastoral areas, outlining the distinctive characteristics of pastoral tenure systems and the difficulties of formalising them within broader governance frameworks. It reviews current trends in land tenure and governance, including government initiatives to safeguard pastoral lands and the strategies pastoralists employ to access land despite insecurity.

The analysis highlights the disproportionate impact of losing linchpin resources, the cyclical degradation of accessible rangelands, and the structural barriers to anticipatory adaptation. The report concludes with reflections on research gaps and pathways forward, emphasising the need for long‑term, context‑sensitive interventions that strengthen tenure security and support pastoral resilience.

Une revue de la tenure et de la gouvernance des terres pastorales en Afrique de l’Est et de l’Ouest

Fiona Flintan — 2021-12-31

Cet examen de données probantes analyse comment la pression croissante sur les terres pastorales en Afrique de l’Est et de l’Ouest fragilise les systèmes fonciers, entraînant une réduction de l’accès aux terres, une dégradation des ressources et une escalade des conflits. Elle met en évidence comment les pasteurs développent des stratégies hybrides pour sécuriser les terres et s’adapter à ces défis.

Living with compounding livelihood shocks

Maha Elsamahi — 2021-11-24

This report is one in a series of SPARC publications that will present longitudinal findings from qualitative interviews with pastoral, agricultural and agropastoral participants in Nigeria, South Sudan and Somalia. The specific topics explored in each round of interviewing will change over the lifetime of the SPARC programme to address emerging learning priorities. However, this report, and the study more generally, is guided by three overarching research questions: What are the shocks currently affecting the livelihoods of agropastoral populations in Nigeria? In what ways are people adapting their livelihoods in the face of the compounding shocks and stresses, including Covid-19, and what types of livelihood adaptations are proving more or less successful? What types of formal and informal support or factors are helping people to manage the impacts of major shocks and stresses on their livelihoods?

The report finds that the challenges agropastoralists in Nigeria’s drylands face are varied. If unaddressed, compounding shocks, including but not limited to the Covid-19 crisis, threaten to undermine the long-term resilience of these agropastoral livelihoods. In many cases, shocks affect people within the same community in dramatically different ways. The perception that aid interventions are singularly focused on curtailing the spread of Covid-19, to the exclusion of other longstanding livelihood challenges, risks driving resentment and scepticism towards aid actors within targeted communities. In response to these compounding shocks, agropastoralists in Nigeria’s drylands are turning to an array of coping and adaptive strategies. However, only time will tell if these strategies are short-term coping mechanisms to weather unprecedented volatility, or a signifier of more permanent adaptation changes to rural livelihoods in Nigeria.

Understanding the role of anticipatory action in Somalia

Simon Levine — 2021-10-29

Over the past couple of decades, more attention has been paid in the humanitarian sector to the possibility of giving assistance based on the expectation that a crisis is coming, but before humanitarian needs are severe. Under various labels – including anticipatory action, early warning or early response, forecast-based action and livelihood protection – interest is being pushed by organisations such as the Start Network, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and the Red Cross Red Crescent Climate Centre, and UN agencies.

We prefer to use the term ‘anticipatory action’ because people facing possible crises anticipate and act. The discussion within the aid sector is better if it is not exclusively inward-looking, about the aid, but can instead focus on what everyone – affected farmers, pastoralists, businesses, local and central government, service providers and aid actors – could do with sensible anticipation and forward planning.

SPARC has already established a panel of households for regular interviews in Somalia, including Somaliland and Puntland. Because there were forecasts of poor first rains in 2021 in parts of the Horn of Africa, following on from poor second rains in 2020, the risk of a drought crisis was heightened. This opened a window of opportunity for a real-time learning exercise that could be useful for the future design of anticipatory action. By following farmers, pastoralists and traders throughout the rainy season and beyond, we aim to answer the following questions:

As shocks approach and as crises develop, what do (different) people know – about the future risk, its potential impacts and possible mitigating strategies?
What are their objectives at different times, given what they know (or what they think they know)?
What would they like to be able to do to avoid or mitigate the predicted problems?
What are their constraints to taking action? How and when could these constraints be removed?

Transboundary climate and adaptation risks in Africa

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2021-10-26

This report examines how African policy-makers and experts perceive transboundary climate change and adaptation risks (TCARs) with potential multi-country and regional consequences. TCARs arise from climate impacts that cross borders, adaptation decisions in one country affecting others, or mitigation actions constraining adaptation options elsewhere. Pathways of risk transmission include biophysical impacts on ecosystems and resources, financial flows and investment patterns, trade in climate-sensitive goods, cross-border human mobility, and geopolitical dynamics around sovereignty and cooperation.

Through surveys and interviews, SPARC assessed perceptions of 24 TCARs, drawn from national and regional policy frameworks, rating their likelihood within the next decade and severity if realised. Findings highlight the urgent need to strengthen coordination through Regional Economic Communities and align these with African Union agencies and frameworks. Without robust regional implementation, nations remain ill-equipped to manage risks that transcend boundaries. Accompanying infographics illustrate triggers, pathways, and perceptions of TCARs.

Risques transfrontaliers liés au climat et à l’adaptation en Afrique

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2021-10-26

Ce rapport documente la manière dont les décideurs et experts africains perçoivent les risques liés au changement climatique et à l’adaptation qui sont susceptibles d’avoir des répercussions, allant au-delà des frontières nationales, jusqu’à l’échelle régionale.

Resilient generation

Mairi Dupar — 2021-09-30

This issue brief summarises key findings and recommendations from the research report ' Resilient Generation: supporting young people’s prospects for decent work in the drylands of east and west Africa '.

Key messages from the brief include:

The ‘Resilient Generation’ report reviews opportunities available for investment and programmes to enhance young people’s readiness and prospects for decent work in the drylands of east and west Africa;
Pastoralism traditionally has been the dominant livelihood in the drylands of east and west Africa. Pastoralism and rural livelihoods are highly exposed to climate variability and change. In this context, ‘decent work’ now and in the future will be defined as being responsive to climate change, as well as providing a secure and reliable income;
There is a large gap in programme interventions that address the nexus of youth, climate, agriculture and pastoralism, and decent work. This provides government and practitioners with a tremendous opportunity to do more programming at this nexus and to do it well;
There are valuable operational lessons on how to improve the relevance of education, vocational training, and transitions to decent work, arising from the few nexus programmes that have been evaluated;
It is important to expand the narrative around young people’s livelihood options in drylands, within and beyond agriculture and pastoralism, to encompass a wide suite of decent jobs in climate-adaptive, low-carbon fields. Such work must underpin economic growth in these regions. As investments in infrastructure and markets shift in response to climate science, climate realities and commitments to the Paris Agreement so, too, must investments in young workers’ skills, knowledge and opportunities, to keep pace.

Resilient generation

Mairi Dupar — 2021-09-30

Africa’s east and west regions have some of the youngest populations globally, with under‑18s comprising nearly half of residents. While this demographic shift offers potential for labour markets, it also presents challenges in creating decent, climate‑resilient livelihoods, particularly in rural drylands.

These arid and semi‑arid areas face high climate variability, weak institutions, poor infrastructure, and limited market access, yet they are rich in cultural diversity and traditional knowledge. Climate change, conflict, and other shocks exacerbate risks for youth employment.

Despite opportunities in agriculture, pastoralism, renewable energy, tourism, and green technologies, few policies or programmes have targeted education, skills, and employment support for dryland youth. Gender, age, poverty, and intersecting identities further shape access to resources and opportunities.

Focusing on Ethiopia, Nigeria, South Sudan, Somalia, Sudan, and Mali, this report reviews current livelihood prospects, identifies research gaps, and recommends inclusive, gender‑responsive strategies to broaden opportunity windows for decent work in fragile dryland contexts.

Exploring the conflict blind spots in climate adaptation finance

Yue Cao — 2021-09-30

This report investigates whether and how climate adaptation programmes have incorporated conflict sensitivity in fragile and conflict-affected situations (FCSs). It identifies two major “conflict blind spots” in adaptation finance: the limited integration of conflict risk into programme design and the barriers to scaling finance in volatile contexts.

Drawing on donor approaches in the Sahel and Horn of Africa, and case studies from Mali, Somalia, and Sudan, the analysis highlights persistent gaps in linking climate change to conflict and fragility.

Findings reveal insufficient donor strategies, limited expertise, and weak incentives to cultivate capacity at the climate–conflict nexus. Recommendations include embedding conflict sensitivity across donor policies and guidance, strengthening inclusive local participation, and adopting flexible operational protocols to respond to unforeseen events.

To expand adaptation finance in FCSs, the report calls for improved donor coordination, revised modalities, stronger public financial management, and tailored access to multilateral climate funds.

Génération résiliente : soutenir les perspectives de travail décent pour les jeunes dans les zones arides d’Afrique de l’Est et de l’Ouest

Mairi Dupar — 2021-09-30

Cette note d’information complémentaire résume les résultats du rapport Génération résiliente, en soulignant la nécessité de programmes plus intégrés à l’intersection de la jeunesse, du climat et des moyens de subsistance dans les zones arides d’Afrique de l’Est et de l’Ouest.

Messages clés

Les jeunes sont largement majoritaires au sein des populations des pays est et ouest-africains. Bien que cela offre une aubaine pour les marchés du travail, il présente également des défis pour les gouvernements et les agences de développement désireux de fournir aux jeunes des opportunités génératrices de revenus décentes et sérieuses.

Il existe un potentiel considérable d’investissement dans des avenirs durables et résilients face au changement climatique dans les économies et les environnements des zones arides.

Pour assurer l’efficacité des investissements, et pour pouvoir récolter les fruits économiques et environnementaux à l’échelle locale et régionale, il faudra établir un dialogue beaucoup plus large et ouvert avec les jeunes dans toute leur diversité : femmes, hommes, et ceux présentant différents handicaps et aptitudes, entre autres traits. Plus précisément, il y a des besoins importants et non satisfaits (et des occasions) d’investissement dans une éducation, des formations professionnelles et techniques, et des transitions vers un travail décent pour les jeunes des zones arides qui soient intelligentes face au changement climatique et plus pertinentes à l’échelle locale. Cela concerne tout particulièrement les jeunes issus de communautés pastorales, dont l’accès aux services d’éducation et de formation a été très insuffisant jusqu’ici.

Les agences de développement et les autres acteurs travaillant dans les zones arides devraient chercher intentionnellement à consulter, établir des partenariats avec, et soutenir le leadership et le libre arbitre decisionnel des jeunes, en particulier ceux issus de milieux pastoraux.

Stabilising the Sahel

Catherine Simonet — 2021-07-21

The Sahelian region has a growing focus for the international development community as it tries to address instability, violent extremism and forced displacement in countries including Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso.

Livestock mobility and trade can strengthen regional integration and are the basis of resilience to climate and conflict-related crises. Livestock markets in these countries are well integrated at national and regional levels.

Production areas in Mali and Niger are essential to the regional market, which is relatively resilient to conflict dynamics. However, climate and conflict affect livestock prices, and shocks can negatively affect communities and national economies. Strengthening the regional livestock sector and enabling environment has the potential to deliver sustainable outcomes for food security, economic development and stability.

This policy brief ‘Stabilising the Sahel: Livestock as a driver of regional integration’ recommends that to maximise positive and sustainable impact, and avoid unintended outcomes, policy makers and practitioners must take into account two fundamental characteristics of the Sahelian region when planning and implementing interventions.

These are: Regional integration is key to economic development and political stability; Pastoralism and agro-pastoralism are major livelihoods and economic activities that strengthen regional integration through the movement and trade of livestock.

Policies and investments that reinforce these related processes can support resilience and stability in the Sahel and West Africa. While discourse is growing around herder–farmer conflict as one of the main causes of insecurity in the Sahel, in reality, the interactions between intercommunal, natural-resource-based conflict and state insecurity and extremism are difficult to untangle. Yet the importance of agro-pastoralism for economic development in the region is clear.

Policymakers and practitioners need a better understanding of the current crisis to address the complex challenges facing the Sahel. This analysis confirms that this is possible using existing information. It outlines specific evidence-based actions and investments that can improve the resilience of livestock markets in the region to climate and conflict shocks, consequently improving their contribution to livelihoods, food security and the regional economy.

These policy recommendations are: Strengthening regional early warning systems; Development of public–private partnerships for livestock insurance; Application of transhumance regulations; Climate-resilient livestock transformation; Expanding initiatives to harmonise data collection and market monitoring systems.

Stabiliser le Sahel

Catherine Simonet — 2021-07-21

Cette note d’information explique comment le renforcement des marchés du bétail au Sahel peut accroître la résilience face aux chocs climatiques et sécuritaires, en soutenant les moyens de subsistance, la sécurité alimentaire et l’intégration régionale dans des pays comme le Mali, le Niger et le Burkina Faso.

Principales conclusions:

La région du Sahel est une région d’intérêt grandissant pour la communauté internationale, soucieuse de traiter les causes profondes de l’instabilité, de l’extrémisme violent et des déplacements forcés dans les pays de la région y compris au Mali, Niger et Burkina Faso.
L’intégration régionale est clé pour le développement économique et la stabilité politique au Sahel. La mobilité du bétail et le commerce renforcent l’intégration régionale et sont la base de la résilience face aux crises liées au climat et au conflit.
Les marchés de bétail sont bien intégrés aux niveaux nationaux et régionaux. Les zones de productions au Mali et au Niger sont essentielles pour le marché régional qui dans l’ensemble est relativement résilient face aux dynamiques de conflit. Néanmoins le climat et le conflit affectent les prix du bétail, et les chocs peuvent avoir une incidence négative sur les communautés et les économies nationales.
Renforcer le secteur de l’élevage au niveau régional et soutenir un environnement favorable peuvent apporter des résultats durables pour la sécurité alimentaire, le développement économique et la stabilité. Il y a plusieurs options possibles pour arriver à cela, y compris une infrastructure modernisée, une amélioration du marketing et de la production de fourrage et des services financiers adaptés/sur mesure tels que l’assurance.

Impacts of disruptions to livestock marketing in Sudan

Alex Humphrey — 2021-07-15

This report examines how the 2020 Hajj suspension affected low-income herders and livestock traders in Sudan. It draws on interviews and literature to explore export disruptions and options for mitigating future shocks.

Sexual and reproductive health and rights after Covid-19: A forward-looking agenda

Fiona Samuels — 2021-06-16

Despite several progressive responses aimed at maintaining sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) during the Covid-19 pandemic, the availability of SRHR services and products has been restricted, and this is felt especially keenly by already-marginalised groups.

The following recommendations can embed an understanding of SRHR needs across multiple overlapping systems and structures, and use the opportunity created by Covid-19 to place SRHR firmly at the top of public health agendas and push for progressive and lasting social change.

At the macro level, there is a need for political will, concrete commitments and funding to prioritise SRHR-related services and programming. Governments can make tangible commitments at the Generation Equality Forum, the G7 and other spaces this year. It will be critical to resist further austerity and funding cuts in the wake of the pandemic and the likely recession to follow.

National-level commitments and policies need to be translated and operationalised into integrated and inclusive programming at the meso (or sub-national) level through the coordination of an inter- and multi-sectoral approach with different organisations with an interest in SRHR.

At the micro level, people-centred care approaches alongside community engagement are critical so that services are culturally appropriate, holistic, and user-friendly for girls, women and gender diverse people. Community members, including end-users, need to be involved from the design of programmes through to delivery and monitoring and evaluation.

Corrections and clarifications: Published online: 2 June 2021. Corrected online: 16 June. In the key messages and on page 4, 'patient-centred care' was amended to 'people-centred care'.

Conflict in the time of Covid-19

Leigh Mayhew — 2021-05-20

How have Covid-19 and lockdown measures affected the social relationships of farmers and pastoralists in the conflict-affected Nigerian states of Adamawa, Benue, Kaduna, Kogi and Plateau? What, if any, changes in social cohesion and conflict have these farmers and pastoralists had to deal with against the backdrop of pandemic control measures and the other shocks they routinely face? These were among the questions that SPARC asked farmers and herders in Adamawa, Benue, Kaduna, Kogi and Plateau to gain some insight into their experiences of social cohesion and conflict since April 2020.

This brief highlights how the activities of armed and vigilante groups changed during the pandemic; farmer and pastoralist perceptions of government pandemic response measures and aid, and how pandemic measures impacted social relationships within agro-pastoral and pastoral communities.

Our findings highlight that: Farmers and pastoralists largely reported that Covid-19 did not create new social, inter-ethnic or inter-group tensions. Where conflict was taking place, it had existed before the pandemic and was not perceived to have increased or decreased specifically due to pandemic measures; Farmers and herders stated that longstanding feelings of land tenure disadvantage and ethnic tension, and/or conflict mediation efforts, were more important in shaping conflict than the shock (e.g. Covid-19) itself. These interim findings provide valuable insight for policymakers, donors and aid actors seeking to reduce conflict risk, including how: Governmental organisations, government and donors can more successfully reduce conflict risk regardless of shock by understanding background conflict contexts and supporting livelihoods, land tenure clarification and conflict mediation; Aid actors need steady approaches to conflict mediation that work to address longstanding concerns and bolster local mediation efforts, not reactive approaches.

Rapid assessment of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic

2021-04-14

In late 2020, Somalia faced overlapping hazards. Severe flooding, the worst locust plague in 70 years, and the Covid‑19 pandemic that compounded risks to livelihoods and food security.

The pandemic disrupted livestock exports, reduced remittance flows, and curtailed religious gatherings, including the Hajj, which traditionally drives demand for millions of live animals from Somalia to the Middle East. With Saudi Arabia limiting pilgrims to fewer than 11,000, the need for nearly three million imported animals vanished, striking at the heart of Somalia’s largely informal and unregulated livestock trade.

This rapid assessment, based on interviews and focus group discussions, explores the impact of restricted Hajj 2020 on Somali pastoralists and traders. Findings highlight vulnerabilities in export-dependent systems and the cascading effects on household resilience and child malnutrition.

The study concludes with recommendations for short-, medium-, and long-term programming and investment to strengthen Somalia’s livestock economy and food security.

Évaluation rapide de l’impact de la pandémie de COVID-19

2021-04-14

Ce rapport évalue l’impact des restrictions du Hajj de 2020 sur les exportations de bétail de la Somalie, en montrant comment la perte d’un marché majeur, dans un contexte de crises multiples, a révélé la fragilité de son économie largement informelle et dépendante de l’élevage.

Legal mobilisation as a societal response to violence: lessons from Michoacán

Salvador Maldonado — 2019-11-15

This briefing paper is part of a broader project investigating societal responses to violence in the state of Michoacan in Mexico. It explores how local organisations and associations have used legal mobilisation strategies to counter extreme violence, with a particular focus on three vulnerable groups: families of victims of forced disappearances; victims of sexual and gender-based violence; and sex workers.

All three groups have used various means of legal mobilisation to seek justice, protect their interests and reduce their vulnerability. While these efforts have secured some notable achievements, they have also faced substantial challenges and limitations.

Corporate water management and stewardship: signs of evolution towards sustainability

Peter Newborne — 2019-11-06

This Briefing note on corporate water management and 'stewardship' identifies tentative signs of evolution towards sustainability by leading companies, away from a focus purely on maximising short-term shareholder returns. Other companies can emulate and build on these to ensure the commercial health of their food and beverage production. A working hypothesis is offered as to the business case for sustainability as companies increasingly experience disruptions to their supply chains as a result of water problems.

At the same time, the note cautions against corporate plans for growth that do not take account of water availability limits in water-stressed catchments for example, as well as the risk of misleading use by companies of volumetric water accounting tools that conceal water realities in the individual catchment context. It is not enough to measure 'water saved' as a result of water efficiency measures; additional evidence is needed to demonstrate what associated social, economic and environmental benefits result and where they occur.

This note follows the broad-based survey of water stewardship published by the same authors in November 2016. Water stewardship aims to promote shared responsibility in water management through dialogue and collaboration between water users, for greater water security. Private firms and companies are asked to participate in multi-stakeholder processes so as to be part of the solution to water problems, including those beyond just their own premises and operations.

Three years later - based on further research and many new conversations with representatives of corporates and other actors - the authors return to the subject to consider what experience and knowledge has been acquired and what advances have been made in water management and stewardship. They examine the drivers of corporate 'water behaviour' and ask what pieces of the water stewardship 'puzzle' are still missing.

'Leave no one behind' index 2019

Soumya Chattopadhyay — 2019-09-18

The commitment to 'leave no one behind' is a cornerstone of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and was also the theme of the first High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development of the Sustainable Development Goals era in 2016.

This index reviews the readiness of 159 countries to 'leave no one behind', assessing and monitoring the extent to which government systems are set up and ready to meet their leave no one behind commitment enshrined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. It builds on its previous iterations in 2017 and 2018 and maintains the same methodology used in 2018. Our analysis compares changes over the past year, as well as increasing the scale of coverage from 86 countries in 2018 to 159 in 2019.

The index comprised three main thematic components: 1. Data: Are countries undertaking the surveys necessary to identify those at high risk of being left behind? 2. Policy: Do countries have key policies in place that address the needs of those at risk of being left behind - namely, women's access to land, anti-discrimination labour-laws and universal access to health - that previous ODI research identified as critical areas to support leaving no one behind? 3. Finance: Are governments investing adequately in education, health and social protection - three sectors key to supporting those at high risk of being left behind? This dimension compares the share of public budget relative to international targets in these three sectors that build critical human capital.

Financing the end of extreme poverty: 2019 update

Marcus Manuel — 2019-09-17

430 million people will be living in extreme poverty by 2030;despite economic growth reducing poverty by one-third. This is 30 million more people than the Overseas Development Institute,,'s 2018 assessment;and means the world is significantly off track to achieve the first Sustainable Development Goal. Most countries can afford the investment to end extreme poverty on their own;but there are still 46 countries that face a £222 billion funding shortfall in doing so. This research finds that both donors and countries have a part to play in financing the end of extreme poverty.

Investing in financial inclusion for climate resilience and adaptation: the role of Islamic financial services

Margherita Calderone — 2019-05-01

The UN Climate Summit in September 2019 will present a significant opportunity to transform the international response on climate change resilience and adaptation. It will also provide a key space to promote innovative sources of finance and financial instruments to support climate adaptation and resilience. While there is a growing consensus recognising that financial inclusion has manifold benefits, including enhancing financial stability and building resilience, there also needs to be a realisation that, if the international pledge to foster financial inclusion and support resilience is serious, Islamic financial products must be supported to ensure that Muslim populations are not excluded from the formal financial system.

This briefing note aims to feed into the Climate Summit by examining the opportunities for investing in Sharia-compliant financial products. Jointly developed by ODI and Islamic Relief Worldwide (IRW), it is based on an extensive literature review and on the research team's participation in discussions at a roundtable in February 2019 on the role of Islamic financial services in financial inclusion for climate change resilience and adaptation.

Findings:

There is a growing consensus that financial inclusion can have a range of benefits, including for climate resilience and adaptation. Financial inclusion rates tend to be low in Muslim-majority countries: more needs to be done to develop financial services and instruments that are tailored to the context.
In scaling-up Islamic financial services, more effort is needed to identify new tools and complement grant funding with different financing approaches. Greater experimentation in product delivery could help in driving down costs, while further product development could contribute to wider acceptance of Sharia-compliant financial services as instruments of financial inclusion and resilience.
There is also a need to further develop relationships and partnerships to connect private and public actors, as well as linking Islamic finance players and donors with mainstream climate resilience and disaster risk management.

The Principled Aid Index

Nilima Gulrajani — 2019-03-26

Amid a rising tide of political populism in Europe and beyond, the idea that aid should serve the national interest is gaining currency. Yet there is little explicit recognition that aid oriented towards securing domestic interests is not always the most efficient, nor the most effective, way to maximise global development ambitions. Conversely, we forget that aid focused on delivering global development can itself service the national interest.

ODI's Principled Aid (PA) Index ranks bilateral Development Assistance Committee (DAC) donors by how they use their official development assistance to pursue their long-term national interest in a safer, sustainable and more prosperous world. This policy brief, makes the following recommendations:

Donors should advance their national interest by pursuing a principled aid allocation strategy.
There is an urgent need for donors to be more public spirited in their aid allocations, maximising every opportunity to achieve development impact.
OECD DAC donors should hold each other accountable for delivering principled aid in the national interest.
Development cooperation agencies should forge a new political consensus on principled aid across OECD DAC and non-DAC providers.

A complementary working paper outlines the conceptual framework and methodological approach that informed the Index's development.

Africa's rising debt: how to avoid a new crisis

Shakira Mustapha — 2018-11-01

Almost 40% of countries in sub-Saharan Africa are in danger of slipping into a major debt crisis. The number of countries at high risk of debt distress - 18 in all - has more than doubled since 2013, while eight countries are already in distress.

This briefing note offers policy-makers and practitioners an overview of the risks faced by sub-Saharan African countries as they try to keep their debt on a sustainable track, particularly the challenges relating to relatively new sources of finance. Based on this evidence, we recommend critical reforms for both borrowers and lenders to ease vulnerabilities and build resilience into debt management.

Key messages:

Responsible debt management requires transparency and information-sharing among borrowers and lenders, but this remains a challenge, exacerbated by the rise of new lenders and more complex types of debt financing.
State-contingent debt instruments with official sector support from lenders can build fiscal resilience to exogenous shocks.
Further strengthening debt management capacity and analytical tools for debt management in sub-Saharan Africa remains a priority, and requires up-front country ownership and political commitment, as well as commitment from donors and technical assistance providers.

Changing the lives of rural women and girls for the better

Steve Wiggins — 2018-10-04

Across the global South, most rural women and girls are disadvantaged compared to men and boys. Most receive less formal education, have fewer opportunities to work outside the household, and when they do, they are often paid less and treated worse than men. Most rural women live with norms that define them primarily as wives and mothers, confined to the domestic sphere, where men do less than their fair share of household chores. Changes to the lives of rural women and girls take place at several levels: within processes of development and transformation at the national level; in rural areas and within agriculture; in households; and, finally, for women and girls as individuals. Changes to agriculture and rural areas over the longer run can be dramatic, as agriculture loses its relative importance when a country urbanises.

To see how such changes take place and what they imply for women and girls, this briefing examines three cases of long-term rural economic transformation since the 1960s: those of Egypt, Peru and Thailand. All three countries have seen economic growth, urbanisation, and a marked shift in their economic structure as agriculture has declined relative to industry and services.

Delivering blockchain's potential for environmental sustainability

Miriam Denis Le Sève — 2018-10-03

By placing trust and authority in a decentralised network, rather than in a powerful central institution, blockchain - the technology underlying Bitcoin and a growing number of financial and non-financial use-cases - could reconfigure how we assign, protect and transfer many assets and services, including in the natural environment. In the decade since blockchain was developed as the technology behind Bitcoin, several pilots and a few larger-scale projects have sought to apply it to various global challenges - from voting and identity to health. While there is, as yet, little hard evidence on blockchain's ability to address environmental problems at scale, its enthusiastic uptake reflects broad potential at a conceptual level.

This briefing note explores the following questions:

What kinds of environmental sustainability challenges might blockchain address?
What are the considerations to harness blockchain as a positive force for environmental sustainability?
What steps are needed to help achieve the potential?

The briefing recognises the scope of blockchain's disruptive potential, while also acknowledging key barriers to efficacy, uptake and scaling - and proposes, where possible, solutions to these challenges. Drawing on interviews with experts, discussions from a consultative roundtable and a desk review, this study is intended for a broad audience interested in development, environmental sustainability and technology. The authors address their main recommendations to governments of low- and middle-income countries that seek to harness blockchain, as well as providing additional recommendations for governments of wealthier countries and businesses and start-ups that may be developing blockchain applications.

Disability inclusion and disaster risk reduction: overcoming barriers to progress

John Twigg — 2018-07-23

Disasters have a disproportionate impact on people with disabilities, who are at higher risk of death, injury and loss of property. Although the rights and needs of people with disabilities in disasters are increasingly being addressed through policies, standards and guidelines, much more needs to be done to remove the barriers to their inclusion in disaster risk reduction (DRR) and response.

Effective institutions with supportive attitudes, structures and systems, backed up by good evidence, are key to meaningful disability inclusion. Human rights-based approaches have the potential to lead to a major shift in institutional policy and practice towards disability.

Disability advocates and disabled people's organisations can also play a significant role in disaster policy, planning and interventions, but formal disaster agencies tend to have limited interaction or collaboration with them.

This briefing note identifies five key challenges that need to be addressed in order to promote disability inclusion in DRR and humanitarian action, relating to evidence and data, contextual understanding, institutions and programmes, representation and discrimination. It highlights the importance of rights-based approaches, together with improved standards and indicators, in overcoming these challenges.

Energy, migration and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

Andrew Scott — 2018-07-08

This briefing considers the direct and indirect relationships between migration and energy services in places of origin and destination, and how changes due to migration will affect achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), notably SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy). Access to energy services - or the lack of it - can contribute to migration; and migration's social and economic gains are only realised with the use of energy - lighting, cooking, heating, cooling, communications, mobility and motive power. These links underscore the necessity of considering the impact of migration on achieving SDG 7, and the impact energy has on migration decisions and journeys.

Key messages:

Migration can contribute to improving access to reliable, affordable modern energy services (SDG target 7.1) by enabling higher incomes for migrants and through the sending of remittances.
The informal or irregular status of many migrants is a barrier to universal access to modern energy services. Migrants in informal settlements and displaced people often experience a worsening in their access to modern energy services.
Migrants require knowledge about modern energy services and markets to ensure equitable access to reliable, affordable energy in high-income countries. They may transfer this energy knowledge to their communities of origin.

'Leave no one behind' index 2018

Marcus Manuel — 2018-07-06

This index reviews the readiness of 86 countries to 'leave no one behind', monitoring the extent to which government systems are set up and ready to meet their leave no one behind commitment.

It covers all the countries that are presenting Voluntary National Reviews at the 2018 High-level Political Forum as well as those that presented last year. Building on ODI's 2017 'leave no one behind' index, this year's index adds an additional policy indicator on resilience. It also includes a new 'leave no one behind' outcome score for each country that captures the extent to which real-world outcomes on leaving no one behind are improving. The index measures governments' readiness in three areas. 1) Data -- Are countries undertaking the necessary surveys to identify those at risk of being left behind? 2) Policy. Do countries have key policies in place that address the needs of those at risk of being left behind - in particular, in relation to: women's access to land and employment; and universal access to health, which previous ODI research identified as critical areas to support leaving no one behind? 3) Finance.Are governments investing enough in education, health and social protection - the three key sectors that are well recognised to be critical for supporting those at risk of being left behind?

G7 fossil fuel subsidy scorecard: tracking the phase-out of fiscal support and public finance for oil, gas and coal

Shelagh Whitley — 2018-06-04

While progress is being made to transition away from fossil fuels, this analysis shows that G7 governments continue to provide at least $100 billion in subsidies to the production and use of coal, oil and gas, which may hinder or delay these shifts. Despite their numerous commitments, not only have G7 governments taken limited action to address fossil fuel subsidies but they have also failed to put in place any mechanisms to define and document the full extent of their support to oil, gas and coal, or to hold themselves accountable for achieving these pledges. The G7 fossil fuel subsidy scorecard aims to address this accountability gap and track, for the first time, each G7 country's progress in phasing out fossil fuel subsidies across seven indicators. The authors find that, with less than seven years to meet their 2025 phase-out deadline, G7 governments continue to provide substantial support the production and use of oil, gas and coal. On average per year in 2015 and 2016 the G7 governments gave at least $81 billion in fiscal support and $20 billion in public finance, for both production and consumption of oil, gas and coal at home and overseas.

G7 fossil fuel subsidy scorecard: methodology note

Shelagh Whitley — 2018-06-04

G7 countries (and others around the world) are in the early stages of an energy transition - including, in some areas, a shift away from the production and consumption of fossil fuels. This transition is being driven by decarbonisation objectives and policies, as well as a sharp reduction in the cost of clean technologies. In acknowledgement of this, every year since 2009 the G7, and G20, have committed to phase out fossil fuel subsidies, along with related commitments under the Sustainable Development Goals and the Paris Agreement.

Aid, security and Britain's role in the world: proposals for coherent government action

Victoria Metcalfe-Hough — 2018-04-05

How can the UK government institute a more integrated approach to promoting peaceful, secure, resilient and prosperous societies across the developing world?

There are considerable complexities for the UK government in addressing the sources and mitigating the impact of fragility and conflict globally - while balancing trade-offs between the UK's aid and security objectives. ODI and the Royal United Services Institute (RUSI) have explored recent experiences of collective government working on aid and security with senior officials to identity how tensions between these areas might be better managed.

This briefing outlines five areas for action that could promote a more integrated and effective UK government approach to aid and security.

Moving towards a growing global discourse on transboundary adaptation

Rebecca Nadin — 2018-03-27

The scientific consensus is clear that climate change will alter the frequency, intensity, duration, timing and location of extreme weather and slow-onset events. It will also lead to creeping environmental changes, such as shifts in seasons or sea-level rise. Understandably, in response, adaptation measures have generally been focused on developing national, subnational and sector plans, with actions often taking place at community or local levels. Yet, it has long been understood that the effects of climate change are transboundary, crossing political borders and impacting shared resources.

Transboundary resource management is not a new concept, but there is a need to develop transboundary adaptation frameworks and response measures that build upon existing regulatory approaches in international environmental law, and to develop the work of intergovernmental organisations and regional advocacy organisations.

Regional cooperation is needed to manage shared ecosystems and consider the transboundary risk implications of National Adaptation Plans and Intended Nationally Determined Contributions. The need for transboundary adaptation and global cooperation on adaptation will be increasingly important, as the impacts of climate change span national borders. National adaptation actions can themselves generate transboundary risks.

This briefing note describes the current adaptation plans and strategies in place, including some, such as the Mekong River Commission, which address transboundary risks and the need to manage shared resources. It also highlights opportunities to enhance work on transboundary adaptation through existing mechanisms under the Rio Conventions, including UNCCD and UNFCCC through the Paris Committee for Capacity-Building and associated funds (the Global Environment Facility, the Land Degradation Neutrality Fund and the Adaptation Fund, among others).

'Building back better': a resilient Caribbean after the 2017 hurricanes

Emily Wilkinson — 2018-01-26

After a disaster, the concept of 'building back better' is appealing and logical, but it presents complexities and demands a thorough comprehension of the disaster's causes, recovery processes, and future climate and other risks. Crucially, strong dedication is required from policy-makers and technical personnel in national governments, international aid agencies and donors supporting recovery, and communities already involved in recovery efforts. This briefing paper has been prepared to help policy-makers and practitioners strengthen recovery in the Caribbean after the 2017 hurricanes. The challenges for promoting a more resilient Caribbean are significant; this will require a comprehensive disaster impact assessment (to understand what was most affected and why), legal and regulatory reforms, a recovery strategy closely linked to existing development and investment plans, and more participatory forms of planning than many of these countries had in place prior to the hurricanes. It will also require more systematic use of hazard information and climate science in planning decisions, to manage future risks.

Six recommendations for reforming multilateral development banks: an essay series

Annalisa Prizzon — 2017-12-01

Agenda 2030 and its 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are now the cornerstone of global development. The commitments that must be fulfilled to achieve the SDGs are highly demanding - partly because of the scale of resources required but also because of the sheer complexity of intertwined policies and their means of implementation. Achieving the new set of goals will require a variety of actors working in concert. It will also require a clear understanding of needs and priorities, particularly of those countries that are lagging behind. At the same time, development challenges are now set against a backdrop of growing populism and rising public scepticism about the merits of multilateralism and collective action. As a result, national policies are becoming increasingly inwardlooking.

Multilateral development banks (MDBs) are unique among international actors because of their distinctive development model. They are well placed to help make Agenda 2030 a reality by helping to mobilise finance, tackle issues that cross national borders, and reach the poorest and most vulnerable people in fragile contexts. But the increasing scale and breadth of global development challenges, a constrained lending envelope, and reduced support for a multilateral system under growing scrutiny all point to the need to review whether the current MDB system is fit for meeting the challenges of the 21st century and how it could be reformed.

This essay series presents perspectives on how the MDB system should be reformed to meet the challenges of the 21st century. They focus on elements of strategic direction and policy coherence, operational and financial reforms, and how to respond to an evolving client base. The notes also offer insights into how MDBs can help address the under-provision of global public goods, the financial challenges of countries affected by fragility and the needs of middle-income countries.

Monitoring Europe's fossil fuel subsidies: the European Union

Markus Trilling — 2017-09-28

This brief and accompanying data sheet compiles publicly available information on subsidies to fossil fuel production and consumption in the European Union (EU) between 2014 and 2016.

The study shows that the EU is falling behind in meeting its commitment to phase-out this support by 2020.

This is a background briefing paper to the report 'Phase-out 2020: monitoring Europe's fossil fuel subsidies' and provides a baseline to track progress on the phase-out of fossil fuel subsidies in the EU as part of the global transition to clean energy.

Monitoring Europe's fossil fuel subsidies: Czech Republic

Ipek Gençsü — 2017-09-28

This country brief and accompanying data sheet compiles publicly available information on subsidies to fossil fuel production and consumption in the Czech Republic between 2014 and 2016.

The study shows that the Czech Republic is falling behind in meeting its commitment to phase-out this support by 2020, as pledged by the European Union and its Member States.

This is a background briefing paper to the report 'Phase-out 2020: monitoring Europe's fossil fuel subsidies' and provides a baseline to track progress on the phase-out of fossil fuel subsidies in the Czech Republic as part of the global transition to clean energy.

Monitoring Europe's fossil fuel subsidies: Germany

Ipek Gençsü — 2017-09-28

This country brief and accompanying data sheet compiles publicly available information on subsidies to fossil fuel production and consumption in Germany between 2014 and 2016.

The study shows that Germany is falling behind in meeting its commitment to phase-out this support by 2020, as pledged by the European Union and its Member States.

This is a background briefing paper to the report 'Phase-out 2020: monitoring Europe's fossil fuel subsidies' and provides a baseline to track progress on the phase-out of fossil fuel subsidies in Germany as part of the global transition to clean energy.

Monitoring Europe's fossil fuel subsidies: Greece

Leah Worrall — 2017-09-28

This country brief and accompanying data sheet compiles publicly available information on subsidies to fossil fuel production and consumption in Greece between 2014 and 2016.

The study shows that Greece is falling behind in meeting its commitment to phase-out this support by 2020, as pledged by the European Union and its Member States.

This is a background briefing paper to the report 'Phase-out 2020: monitoring Europe's fossil fuel subsidies' and provides a baseline to track progress on the phase-out of fossil fuel subsidies in Greece as part of the global transition to clean energy.

Monitoring Europe's fossil fuel subsidies: the Netherlands

Laurie van der Burg — 2017-09-28

This country brief and accompanying data sheet compiles publicly available information on subsidies to fossil fuel production and consumption in the Netherlands between 2014 and 2016.

The study shows that the Netherlands is falling behind in meeting its commitment to phase-out this support by 2020, as pledged by the European Union and its Member States.

This is a background briefing paper to the report 'Phase-out 2020: monitoring Europe's fossil fuel subsidies' and provides a baseline to track progress on the phase-out of fossil fuel subsidies in the Netherlands as part of the global transition to clean energy.

Monitoring Europe's fossil fuel subsidies: Poland

Ipek Gençsü — 2017-09-28

This country brief and accompanying data sheet compiles publicly available information on subsidies to fossil fuel production and consumption in Poland between 2014 and 2016.

The study shows that Poland is falling behind in meeting its commitment to phase-out this support by 2020, as pledged by the European Union and its Member States.

Monitoring Europe's fossil fuel subsidies: Sweden

Ipek Gençsü — 2017-09-28

This country brief and accompanying data sheet compiles publicly available information on subsidies to fossil fuel production and consumption in Sweden between 2014 and 2016.

The study shows that Sweden is falling behind in meeting its commitment to phase-out this support by 2020, as pledged by the European Union and its Member States.

Monitoring Europe's fossil fuel subsidies: United Kingdom

Laurie van der Burg — 2017-09-28

This country brief and accompanying data sheet compiles publicly available information on subsidies to fossil fuel production and consumption in the United Kingdom (UK) between 2014 and 2016.

The study shows that the UK is falling behind in meeting its commitment to phase-out this support by 2020, as pledged by the European Union and its Member States.

This is a background briefing paper to the report 'Phase-out 2020: monitoring Europe's fossil fuel subsidies' and provides a baseline to track progress on the phase-out of fossil fuel subsidies in the UK as part of the global transition to clean energy.

The 'leave no one behind' index

Romilly Greenhill — 2017-07-17

The 'leave no one behind' index monitors the extent to which the 44 governments presenting their National Voluntary Reviews at the 2017 High Level Political Forum are set up to meet their commitments to 'leave no one behind'. The index measures governments' readiness in three areas:

Data: have household surveys been conducted recently?
Policy: do countries have some of the core policies in place: are health services free at the point of access; are there anti-discrimination policies in employment; and can women own land?
Finance: do governments meet agreed spending targets in health, education and social protection?

The index shows that of the 44 countries presenting national reviews, 25 are 'ready' to meet 'leave no one behind' commitments, while 18 are 'partially ready'. Data was unavailable for one country.

For the full methodology, policy analysis and references, please see the annex.

Family planning: the adolescent imperative

Nicola Jones — 2017-07-08

Despite progress, more than 16 million adolescent girls become mothers each year, nearly all of whom live in developing countries and are married at a young age. The social and economic costs of child motherhood are immense, from premature school dropouts and limited life opportunities, to heightened risk of maternal and infant illness and death.

Ahead of the Family Planning Summit 2017, this briefing paper argues that the global response to family planning must put adolescent girls at its centre, with investment and prioritisation at the scale of the HIV pandemic response to urgently accelerate progress.

Figures suggest international donors provide more than $8 billion annually to stop the spread of HIV. By contrast, in 2014, the Family Planning 2020 global partnership had secured just $1.4 billion to ensure girls and women have access to lifesaving contraceptives.

Education, migration and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

Susan Nicolai — 2017-06-27

This briefing explores the challenges and opportunities related to primary-school education for migrants - especially in host countries - and the implications for the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (2030 Agenda). It highlights why education matters for migrants and their host countries, trends in primary education, and how migrant education contributes to the achievement of various Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), particularly Goal 4.

Key messages

31 million school-aged children are international migrants, and this number is set to grow. Their education is therefore a long-term strategic priority and investment.
Educating migrant children is essential to meet SDG 4, and more broadly to achieve economic and social benefits such as improved livelihoods, better health outcomes, reductions in gender inequities and enhanced political participation.
Large and unexpected migration flows can disrupt education systems, disadvantage migrant and refugee children and create tensions in host communities. To combat this, a combination of forward-planning and contingency funding is needed.
Education plays an important role in social integration, economic mobility and learning outcomes. Migrant children should not be placed in segregated classes or schools, nor solely taught in their native language.
There is limited data on the education of migrant and refugee children. Government and international institutions need to collaborate to collect such data, and use it to support vulnerable groups.

This is the fifth in a series of policy briefings on the relationship between migration and 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

The costs of logistical and transport barriers to trade in East Africa

Michael Gasiorek — 2017-05-30

Since the establishment of the East African Community (EAC), comprising Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, Tanzania and Uganda, the region has seen a steady strengthening of economic and political ties among the community's partner states. The EAC Customs Union came into force in 2005, facilitating the establishment of a common external tariff and paving the way for the removal of all intra-regional tariffs by 2010. Despite this, available trade statistics paint a mixed picture about the impact of the EAC on intra-regional trade. Although the establishment of the EAC coincided with an important expansion in intra-regional trade in absolute terms, overall intra-EAC exports did not grow as a share of the region's total exports. In addition, the persistence of non-tariff barriers (NTBs) still affects trade flows, and reduces the benefits to be gained from the regional integration process.

This fifth and final briefing of a project on NTBs in the EAC examines the cost of transport and logistical barriers to regional trade, calculating that they cost East African economies between 1.7% and 2.8% of gross domestic product every year. It then offers recommendations for policy-makers, suggesting that further trade liberalisation and improvements to infrastructure will reduce costs, in turn benefitting consumers by lowering prices.

Aid, exports and employment in the UK

Maximiliano Mendez-Parra — 2017-05-18

In 2014, the UK gave $5.9 billion (£3.7 billion using 2014 Bank of England exchange rates) in direct bilateral development assistance, making it one of the largest individual aid donors in the world. UK development assistance funds initiatives to improve education, prevent disease and allow developing countries to become more productive and competitive in international markets, and thus it is considered by many to be a moral imperative. However, there is evidence that the giving of development assistance has a positive effect on the economy of the donor country, too.

Drawing on an econometric analysis of the impact of EU development assistance on the EU economy and job creation, this briefing details how, in 2014, UK direct bilateral development assistance generated an increase in UK exports of $0.22 for every $1 of aid spent, increasing trade revenue and providing an estimated 12,000 extra UK jobs. The briefing concludes, however, that the driving motivation behind the giving of development assistance should remain the alleviation of poverty in the developing world, not any benefit brought to the UK's economy.

Post-Brexit trade policy and development: current developments; new directions?

Maximiliano Mendez-Parra — 2017-03-04

The UK will regain control over its trade policy when it exits the EU. As it begins to negotiate new free trade agreements around the world, it is imperative that all of the UK's current and future trading partners, particularly developing countries, are assured that they will not be worse off as a result of Brexit.

The UK has committed to supporting the economic development of least developed countries, and trade is noted as a core priority in the UK Department for International Development's recently published 'Economic development strategy'. As such, the UK's trade and development policies should be carefully aligned and mutually reinforcing. There is an opportunity to adopt a 'win-win' approach that will benefit both developing countries and the British economy; however, there is a danger that this opportunity will be missed, as to date, developing countries have been largely absent from the discussions around post-Brexit trade.

This briefing explores recent developments in the debate around post-Brexit trade, puts forth recommendations for policy-makers and makes the case for a trade policy that both protects developing economies and benefits the UK economy.

The proposed new European Consensus on Development: has the European Commission got it right?

Raphaelle Faure — 2017-01-31

In November 2016, the European Commission proposed a new European Consensus on Development (COM, 2016a), governing all the international development work of the European Union (EU) and the Member States. This policy brief provides a summary and an analysis of the EU's proposal and sets out a series of options for EU Member States and Members of the European Parliament as they begin negotiations on the text.

This policy brief argues that the proposal works as a primer on contemporary development problems, consistent with the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. However, it does not work as a strategy in the true meaning of the term.

Recommendations:

If Member States and the European Parliament wish this document to be a strategy, then there are three priority areas where more detail is needed:
- comparative advantage and the respective roles of the Commission and Member States
- thematic, sectoral and geographical priorities, with analysis of what this means for lower priority topics
- policy coherence, including implications for the architecture of European Union instruments.
The European Union should prioritise action on fragile states and global public goods, including climate change.

Climate change, migration and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

Emily Wilkinson — 2016-12-06

This briefing looks at the anticipated impacts of climate-induced migration on efforts to achieve the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) on climate change - SDG13. More specifically, this briefing describes the SDG targets relating to climate change, and the particular challenges to each in the context of increasing climate-induced migration.

Key messages

Climate change and disasters are, and will continue to be, major drivers of migration and displacement.
The poor are the most vulnerable to climate change. They are likely to live in high-risk areas, have less means to prepare, and lack information to anticipate, and respond to, a disaster. Yet they are also the people who will find it hardest to migrate.
National adaptation strategies must help those who are forced, or choose, to migrate as result of climate change. They must inform migrants of risk and build their capacity to cope in new locations.
For those who are forced to move internationally, bilateral agreements and international frameworks must protect their rights.
Migrants can put additional pressure on infrastructure and services at destination. National policies need to factor in the needs and impact of new climate-induced migrants.

This is the fourth in a series of policy briefings on the relationship between migration and 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Climate-induced migration and displacement: closing the policy gap

Emily Wilkinson — 2016-11-01

This briefing explores climate-induced migration and displacement, which is seen to be falling between the policy gaps. Existing international frameworks and national policies are yet to make the crucial link between climate change impact on the frequency and intensity of extreme climate events, environmental degradation and human mobility. This is partly because although migration and climate change have a significant relationship, it is extremely difficult to disentangle and quantify. However, it is clear that the numbers of climate-induced migrants will increase.

Global agreement to address climate-induced migration and displacement is needed, but the political obstacles are significant. Governments prefer bilateral solutions to cross-border migration and displacement, and tend to discourage internal rural-to-urban migration. Therefore, a global compact on migration could fill in the policy gaps on climate-induced migration and displacement.

A comprehensive approach would address the need for assistance, protection and durable solutions for those displaced by climate change, manage climate risks for those remaining and support opportunities for voluntary migrants adapting to climate change.

Sustainable cities: internal migration, jobs and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

Paula Lucci — 2016-10-14

This briefing presents an overview of how rural to urban migration (internal migration) impacts on the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in particular Goals 8 and 11. Despite the positive impact that internal migration can have on urban migrants, their families, and their 'host' city, urban migrants are often neglected in government policies. This briefing therefore presents a number of policy recommendations which aim to capture this potential and contribute to achieving the 2030 Agenda on Sustainable Development.

Key messages

Internal migration and population growth are driving rapid urbanisation in many developing countries. How urbanisation is managed, and the types of jobs and services that migrants can access in the city, are crucial to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Rural to urban migration can open up job opportunities, improve livelihoods and contribute to poverty reduction. Those who remain behind also benefit through remittances and non-financial transfers, such as improved knowledge and skills.
Despite their potential, internal migrants are often neglected in government policies and lack access to adequate social protection or basic services.
Poor, urban migrants often work in the informal sector which is poorly regulated in many cities.
Policies should support decent job creation and entrepreneurship, improve work standards, and provide protection and assistance in cases of abuse to strengthen the opportunities available to new arrivals.

This is the third in a series of policy briefings on the relationship between migration and 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

Five ways to deliver UK aid in the national economic interest

Paddy Carter — 2016-09-29

This briefing highlights five ways in which aid brings benefits to the UK, and actions that the Secretary of State can take to accomplish her mission of building a safer, more prosperous world, in a way that delivers for our national interest. In this briefing we set aside important issues like migration and security, in order to focus on the national economic interest.

Our five recommendations are:

When the UK spots cost-effective opportunities to help the world's most vulnerable, even if there is no obvious benefit to the UK, it should take them. The UK should look for opportunities to promote development overseas and which bring benefits at home, but self-interest must not become a necessary condition for all UK aid spending.
The UK should keep the focus of export promotion on addressing market failures in international trade, rather than indirectly using aid to finance export sales.
Aid can benefit UK investors by driving inclusive and sustainable growth overseas and by addressing market failures in capital markets. However, the Secretary of State must ensure that support from the aid budget is proportional to poverty impact.
The UK should take the lead in reforming the humanitarian system by creating insurance-based financing structures that disburse funds rapidly to organisations with well-defined roles, complemented by investments in country disaster risk management systems.
The UK should continue to use aid to bring stability to fragile states, and build on initiatives like the Ross Fund, the Global Innovation Fund and Innovation UK, to develop new transformative technologies to share with the world.

Brexit: implications for climate change commitments

Andrew Scott — 2016-09-28

The UK's decision to leave the EU has implications for climate change policy in the UK and EU, as for almost every other area of policy. It may be two or more years before the details of the UK's new relationship with the EU are fully known but during this time, the global climate change agreement will continue to evolve in a number of areas.

The EU and its member states have committed internationally to take specific actions to address climate change and its effects, and to support developing countries in their efforts to do so too. This briefing outlines how the commitments necessary to ensure that the goals of the Paris Agreement can be met will be affected by the UK leaving the EU.

The briefing concludes that departure from the EU is unlikely to affect the UK or the EU's international commitments to reducing greenhouse gas emissions. However, the UK will need to decide whether to implement the Paris Agreement jointly with the EU or as an individual party, and whether to remain within or outside the emissions trading system. The briefing also discusses the implications for international climate change negotiations, and makes recommendations for the UK and the EU to help ensure international climate change goals can be achieved.

The impact of the UK's post-Brexit trade policy on development

Maximiliano Mendez-Parra — 2016-09-09

Following the vote for Brexit, the UK is facing a formidable challenge: designing a new trade policy to address its new strategic interests. Considering the different and frequently opposing interests, this task is far from straightforward.

Many Brexit supporters have argued for a need to redefine the role of the UK in international politics, with trade at the centre. From the use of international development assistance to the negotiation of trade agreements, trade is regarded as the basis on which to pursue national interests as well as retain global leadership. Unfortunately, little attention has focused on how a new UK trade policy could contribute to development.

The potential to define a new trade strategy, agree new trade agreements and use new aid and trade tools constitutes a major opportunity for the UK to continue championing the cause of trade and development. It is also an opportunity for the UK to make trade policy work more effectively and efficiently in delivering development opportunities. At the same time, there are significant concerns over whether the UK is willing and able to assume such a role. The challenge of defining a new trade policy is considerable, and one for which the UK Government is ill-prepared. Given the magnitude of the tasks and the number of negotiations that the UK will face in the next few years, there is a major risk that developing countries will be overlooked.

This collection of essays offers a number of perspectives on how a new UK trade policy towards developing countries and regions could be designed and implemented, in both the short and longer term. It also conveys the concerns, opportunities and expectations from a group of leading trade specialists from academia, international organisations and think tanks in the UK and elsewhere.

This essay series was produced in partnership with the (UKTPO).

Health, migration and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

Olivia Tulloch — 2016-07-22

This briefing presents an overview of how international migration can have an impact on the sustainable development goal for health and wellbeing. It describes the health needs and health service delivery for migrants and refugees in different settings and highlights the ways they may be excluded in national policies relating to health and from specific policies that work towards achieving the Agenda 2030 on sustainable development.

Implementing the SDGs in the first 1,000 days: briefing note on the Africa regional dialogue

Fortunate Machingura — 2016-07-15

This briefing note summarises the main outcomes and findings from the African regional dialogue held in Nairobi (April 2016), as part of the series 'Starting Strong: the first 1,000 days of the SDGs'. The aim of the event was to gather participants from across sub-Saharan Africa - representing government, civil society, academia and the private sector - to identify key actions toward addressing the unfinished business of the MDGs and how to reach those who are furthest behind in relation to the new SDGs. The series is a collaborative partnership to initiate a wider conversation around priority actions for the first three years of the SDGs - just over 1000 days - with relevant stakeholders with a regional focus.

Implementing the SDGs in the first 1000 days: briefing note on the Latin America and the Caribbean regional dialogue

Paula Lucci — 2016-07-15

This briefing note summarises the main outcomes and findings from the Latin American regional dialogue held in Bogota (June 2016), as part of the series 'Starting Strong: the first 1,000 days of the SDGs'. The aim of the event was to gather participants from across Latin America and the Caribbean - representing government, civil society, academia and the private sector - to identify key actions toward addressing the unfinished business of the MDGs and how to reach those who are furthest behind in relation to the new SDGs. The series is a collaborative partnership to initiate a wider conversation around priority actions for the first three years of the SDGs - just over 1,000 days - with relevant stakeholders with a regional focus.

Brexit and development: how will developing countries be affected?

Dirk Willem te Velde — 2016-07-06

This briefing discusses the actual and potential economic impact of Brexit on developing countries. Brexit will have major implications for developing countries, whether or not the UK actually leaves the EU. Different countries will be affected in different ways, depending on how the UK exits. There are mostly negative effects for developing countries, but some positive ones too. In the short-term, the threat of Brexit has led to currency and stock market fluctuations, which have not spared emerging markets and poorer countries. The long-term effects depend on UK trade deals, any changes to aid allocation, new global collaborations, financial markets and the way in which migration and remittances are maintained.

Women on the move: migration, gender equality and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

Tam O'Neil — 2016-07-04

Women migrate as much as men. Migration data must be disaggregated by sex and age, and migration policies must take account of how gender shapes different migrants' needs. Migration can increase women's access to education and economic resources, and can improve their autonomy and status. Female migrants and refugees are at greater risk of exploitation and abuse, including trafficking.Highly skilled women have high rates of migration but many are employed in low-skilled jobs. Unskilled female migrants work in less regulated and less visible sectors than male migrants. Most migrant domestic workers are women and adolescent girls. This brief presents an overview and analysis of the opportunities, risks and vulnerabilities for women migrants and refugees. It describes the realities of women migrating around the world, specifically the experiences of both high-skilled and low-skilled migrant workers employed in a range of 'care' professions, from domestic workers to nurses and doctors. Migration creates empowerment trade-offs for individual women and girls, and between different groups of women and girls. These trade-offs matter for gender equality and for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).

Starting strong: the first 1,000 days of the SDGs

Paula Lucci — 2016-04-11

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) establish a new round of development targets for the world to meet by 2030, following on from the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), in place since 2000. With the goals now agreed, the focus is shifting to how they will be implemented.

Few would question the idea that the ambition of the SDGs is necessary to address some of the world's most serious development challenges. But unless clear intention, early plans and great effort are made to realise the goals and targets, the SDGs will remain little more than an ambitious vision.

The first days of SDG implementation are critical, with initial actions taken by government, civil society and the private sector setting the foundation for success or failure in the years to come. To this end, ODI and Southern Voice on Post-MDG International Development Goals, along with the Kenya Institute for Public Policy Research and Analysis (KIPPRA), The Centre for Poverty Analysis (CEPA) and Centro de Pensamiento Estratégico Internacional (CEPEI), have organised a series of regional dialogues focused on identifying priority actions on SDGs during the next few years, with the aim to set out a 1000-day agenda.

In order to help delegates prepare and take time to reflect on key topics prior to each event, this paper provides background and contextual material. It follows the structure of the agenda for the two-day meetings, so that topics covered are closely linked to those under discussion during the dialogues.

This paper was updated on 17 May 2016 and 8 June 2016 to include recent developments.

Time for a new approach to environmental and social protection at multilateral development banks

Chris Humphrey — 2016-04-08

The existing multilateral development bank (MDB) safeguards do not tackle the primary developmental issue in environmental and social oversight, which is rooted in weak legal structures and the capacity to implement them. Efforts to guard against the negative social and environmental impacts of infrastructure projects frequently fall short in numerous developing countries. Neglecting such impacts can risk not only the success of an investment project itself but also weaken a nation's social coherence and environmental sustainability more broadly, with potential global consequences involving climate change, conflict, and migration. While a number of countries increasingly acknowledge this and are thereby enhancing their oversight frameworks, others maintain a short-term view by advancing with projects first and addressing problems afterwards. The current safeguard system does not yield the best developmental results, which increasingly motivates countries to outright avoid MDBs for projects that might trigger safeguards. MDBs must shift to a new strategy, focusing on bolstering the national laws and regulations of developing countries rather than shielding themselves from criticism. This shift requires major adjustments in MDB policies and operations, but most importantly, it demands a change in the mindset concerning the best way to achieve optimal developmental outcomes for the planet's welfare.

Leave no country behind: a regional look at performance on selected MDGs and SDGs

Alainna Lynch — 2016-03-31

In Asia-Pacific, Africa and Latin America, countries that have been reported as off-track in meeting the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have in fact done better than expected given their starting points. Across all regions countries have particularly performed well on indicators that include reduction of maternal mortality, increases in secondary enrolment and access to cooking fuel and electricity. However under-performance on indicators varies depending on the regional context. While Asia-Pacific has under-performed expectations on the use of modern energy services; for Latin America and the Caribbean, particular deficits are undernutrition and electricity; and for Africa they are sanitation and the maternal mortality ratio.

Knowing which regions and countries are lagging according to which indicators is invaluable to better targeting by governments and development partners. Recognition of how starting points matter is crucial for policy to focus on implementing the SDG call for country specificity alongside its embrace of the leave no one behind agenda.

Advancing the governance of extractives at the local level: towards politically smart support

Aoife McCullough — 2016-03-31

Environmental and Social Impact Assessments (ESIA) can support the governance of extractives at the local level. However, the implementation of ESIA in developing countries has been found to be relatively ineffective. Despite the potential for ESIA to be used to support the governance of extractives at the local level, donors have not invested in supporting its implementation.

Much of the analysis of the reasons for weak implementation of ESIA has focused on the lack of procedural correctness and capacity of government staff, which prevents ESIA being correctly implemented. The debate has not been informed by political science scholarship on why formal regulation and administrative structures in developing countries do not produce the outcomes they were designed to produce.

This briefing responds to this analytical gap and suggests that working with the political economy environment can increase the effecitveness of ESIA. In particular, it stresses that ESIA implementation could benefit from learnings from political settlement theory, which emphasises how a society's institutional structure and the policies that flow from it reflect the interests of powerful groups in society. Political settlements theory is a useful starting point for thinking about whether ESIA is likely to be implemented by a given country and its potential to inform donor strategy should be further explored.

Budget support to Uganda 1998-2012: a review

Tim Williamson — 2016-02-18

Uganda was one of the first recipients of budget support from international donors in the late 1990s, in what was seen as a pro-development partnership between a reform minded government and external funders. From 1998 to 2012, donors supported the government of Uganda's development agenda by providing direct budget financing of $5.36 billion. But this positive story had unravelled by 2012, with the views of the government and donors diverging over political governance and the use of public funds.

Thinking and working with political settlements

Tim Kelsall — 2016-01-05

This note aims to give some advice to development practitioners, especially those working in-country, on how to use Political Settlements Analysis (PSA) as a diagnostic tool for country programming.

This advice draws on cutting-edge political settlements work to provide a simple set of questions that can help country staff identify the type of settlement they are working in and to draw some broad operational implications.

The briefing also highlights the natural affinity that exists between PSA and Adaptive Development and Thinking and Working Politically. These approaches can both learn from each other, and in the case of Adaptive Development, could help to inform policymakers struggling to operationalise PSA.

What does 'adaptive programming' mean in the health sector?

Olivia Tulloch — 2015-12-22

There is considerable interest in the concept of adaptive development and what it may look like in different sectors, including health.

While health practitioners may not be calling it 'adaptive development', many are already conducting adaptive work - particularly in regards to the application of the 'quality improvement' approach, which is already widely used in the sector.

This briefing explores the concept of adaptive development and how it can, and is, being employed in the public health environment. However, it is argued that if the health sector wants to truly benefit from adaptive approaches, it needs to start thinking and working politically, employing a politically informed, whole system strategy.

Regional infrastructure for trade facilitation: impact on growth and poverty reduction - Policy summary

Marie-Agnes Jouanjean — 2015-12-10

This paper summarises the impact and risks of RITF in terms of growth and poverty reduction as well as the poverty implications around three major findings namely:

RITF encourages economic activity around the border, including for most informal traders
RITF helps firms in African countries connect to modern value chains and in particular global value chains
RITF has long-lasting effects through productivity of firms.

Can carbon capture and storage justify new coal-fired electricity?

Ilmi Granoff — 2015-12-08

The briefing paper determines that because carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology is not yet viable, it does not justify the new coal-fired power plants being built today.

CCS makes new coal plants uneconomic, particularly when compared to growing competition from cleaner energy alternatives.

Nonetheless, CCS research and development should continue with a focus on industrial uses, which do not have economically-viable low-carbon alternatives.

Imagining a new negotiation strategy for LDCs at the WTO

Maximiliano Mendez-Parra — 2015-12-07

The 2015 World Trade Organization (WTO) Ministerial Conference (MC) in Nairobi, Kenya from 14-18 December 2015, provides another opportunity to finalise the current Doha trade negotiations round which started in 2001. A settlement may increase trust in the foundations of the multilateral trade system. Unfortunately, all signs suggest that, yet again, no agreement will be reached. This policy brief highlights potential courses of action for the group of least developed countries (LDCs) in several key areas. Showing that the defensive positions that LDCs have typically adopted in the past are no longer appropriate in the current context, it argues that a more aggressive approach will prove more effective to steer negotiations towards their development needs.

A development agenda for China's G20 presidency

Romilly Greenhill — 2015-12-01

This briefing proposes a potential development agenda for the year ahead in the context of Chinese President Xi's stated focus on improving global economic and financial governance, and promoting inclusive and interconnected development.

That agenda should include: capitalising on China's specific leadership value; economic transformation and global governance; financing sustainable development; infrastructure; climate change and fossil fuel subsidies.

Financing climate technology transfer

Sam Barnard — 2015-11-26

Mitigating dangerous climate change and adapting to its impacts will rely in large part on the application of new technologies. Uses range from producing renewable energy to reducing farmers' reliance on dwindling water resources.

There is strong interest in better understanding how development partners can most effectively encourage and finance technology transfer in developing countries. We present key insights, drawing on the experience of the Global Environment Facility (GEF), an operating entity of the financial mechanism of the UNFCCC.

Key messages

While the international community has set up an increasingly intricate infrastructure to enable technology transfer, investment in these systems has been modest.
Technology transfer projects must set realistic assumptions on the time and effort required to achieve success.
New networks that have been created to support technology transfer can better foster collaboration between investors and technology developers.
Support for technology transfer under the UNFCCC will continue to be small in comparison to wider technology investment flows. To make best use of these limited funds, interventions must address systemic factors affecting technology development and uptake alongside discrete hardware investments.

G20: Governance and economic transformation key for SDG success

Phyllis Papadavid — 2015-11-05

As the G20 prepares to meet in Antalya, Turkey, focus will turn to progress in achieving inclusive robust growth and the promotion of small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs), a key priority for Turkey's G20 presidency. However, as it prepares to hand the leadership over to China, global growth looks fragile. To set the agenda for sustainable growth - through economic transformation and better global economic governance - the G20 should: address financial fragility to safeguard growth;call for economic transformation; increase inclusion in global economic governance; and push for global financial rules.

Implementing the new development framework in countries affected by conflict and fragility

Marcus Manuel — 2015-10-02

Recent research by the Overseas Development Institute,, shows that a revolution is required in the rate of progress if the new SDG development framework is to be achieved. For poor fragile and conflict affected states the challenge is especially acute.

This paper is a background briefing note for International Dialogue on Peacebuilding and Statebuilding UNGA side event on 28 September 2015. It reflects on both what we have learnt and the scale of the challenge ahead, and identifies some elements of a possible new platform for global collective action that is required if we are to ensure no country is left behind.

Universal energy access: can we make it sustainable?

Ilmi Granoff — 2015-10-01

We must improve the quality and quantity of energy consumed by billions of people without access, while at the same time rapidly decarbonising the world's energy systems, responsible for 72.8% of GHG emissions globally. To achieve zero net emissions economy-wide by 2100, the world's electricity supply must be decarbonised by as soon as 2050.

This policy brief resolves this apparent paradox. It shows that universal energy access would largely be a win-win for the climate and poverty.

The power of dialogue: The role of community awareness interventions in ending child marriage in Amhara, Ethiopia

Nicola Jones — 2015-09-30

Poised at the intersection between childhood and the world of adults, adolescent girls face unique challenges to the full development and exercise of capabilities. These four country briefings draw on first-hand information, opinions and experiences from adolescent girls and boys, family and community members, district officials and national stakeholders to examine how social norms operate and impact on girls' abilities to achieve their full life capabilities in Uganda, Ethiopia, Viet Nam and Nepal.

These briefings draw on the findings from the third year of research and are part of a broader multi-country initiative funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) called Transforming the lives of adolescent girls, which uses a common set of research tools that is adapted to the local context.

The power to decide: women, decision-making and gender equality

Tam O'Neil — 2015-09-30

Around the world, women now have more influence over the decisions that affect their lives. Even in the most conservative societies, feminists and gender advocates have been able to forward more equitable policies and outcomes.

This briefing explores women's decision-making power in this context. It looks at the reasons for women's increased presence in public life around the world, and why women in some socioeconomic groups, sectors and countries have less political power than others. It examines when and how women have power and influence in practice, and what they seek to achieve.

In addition, the authors outline how the international community can better support women's political leadership by investing in women's education and economic assets, their organisations and political apprenticeships; focusing on political systems and not just elections; and supporting locally-led and problem-driven responses.

Participatory girls’ clubs: A possible route to tackling restrictive social norms in Viet Nam

Nicola Jones — 2015-09-30

These briefings draw on the findings from the third year of research and are part of a broader multi-country initiative funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) called, 'Transforming the lives of adolescent girls', which uses a common set of research tools that is adapted to the local context.

Communications for social norm change around adolescent girls: Case studies from Uganda

Carol Watson — 2015-09-30

A multi-year, multi-country study is exploring the complex ways in which gender-discriminatory social norms, attitudes and practices are shaping and/or constraining adolescent girls’ capabilities and under what conditions changes may be brought about, particularly around norms and practices related to early marriage and education. The study is being conducted by the Overseas Development Institute,, in partnership with national research teams in Uganda. This country briefing summarises the findings of the third year of research in Uganda, which reviewed the national programme and policy environment and analysed design features and reported impacts.

Improving maternal and child health in Asia through innovative partnerships and approaches

Fiona Samuels — 2015-09-13

To help respond to a shortage of seven million health workers worldwide and a growing overall burden of disease, CARE International UK has entered into partnership with GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) as the implementing partner of GSK's 20% Reinvestment Initiative in Asia. This corporate community investment initiative aims to reinvest 20% of the company's profits into strengthening of community health systems in six of the least developed countries in which GSK operates. This strategic partnership between CARE and GSK focuses on improving maternal and neonatal child health by improving the quantity and quality of frontline community health workers in the most remote and marginalised communities in Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar and Nepal. Through a mix of programming, lesson-learning and advocacy efforts, the initiative hopes to galvanise further national and international action on the health workforce issue. The CARE-GSK partnership is about to complete its first phase (2011-2015) and plans to continue and scale up its projects in 2015-2020.

This briefing provides highlights from the six country projects. First, it presents the key indicators and context for each of the countries, followed by the goals and objectives of each project, and then outlines their achievements and impact. The briefing ends with a discussion of the key approaches and models that the projects have developed also providing some broad conclusions and recommendations for strengthening community health systems with a particular focus on maternal and child health.

Nepal's Child Grant: how is it working for Dalit families?

Jessica Hagen-Zanker — 2015-09-09

The Child Grant cash transfer in Nepal is targeted at all households with children aged up to five years in the Karnali zone and at poor Dalit households in the rest of the country. Its objective is to improve children's nutrition. The focus of this study is specifically on how the grant works for Dalit households.

This briefing paper examines the current issues with the Child Grant programme and identifies six key policy recommendations to improve its effectiveness.

Resilience in the SDGs: developing an indicator for Target 1.5 that is fit for purpose

Aditya Bahadur — 2015-08-13

We outline a comprehensive approach for developing a cross-sectoral, multi-dimensional and dynamic understanding of resilience. This underpins the core message of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that development is multi-faceted and the achievement of many of the individual development goals is dependent on the accomplishment of other goals. It also acknowledges that shocks and stresses can reverse years of development gains and efforts to eradicate poverty by 2030. Crucially, this approach to understanding resilience draws on data that countries will collect for the SDGs anyway and entails only a small additional burden in this regard.

The hidden costs of the 2014 Gaza-Israeli conflict: adolescent girls' psychosocial wellbeing

Nicola Jones — 2015-07-07

The most recent Palestinian-Israeli conflict in July 2014 exacerbated the psychosocial vulnerabilities and risks already faced by the Gazan population.

In the past five years alone, more than 4,000 Palestinians have died, and tens of thousands have been injured. The protracted conflict has triggered acute levels of psychosocial distress, especially among children and adolescents. The UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs has repeatedly described the situation as a chronic emergency and a protracted human dignity crisis.

This qualitative study by ODI and local experts focuses on the Shajaia neighbourhood in Gaza City, an area with more than 120,000 residents that was particularly affected by the 2014 conflict, with many families being forcibly evicted from their houses and left with nowhere to go.

The report highlights gaps in knowledge about the general and mental health of adolescents in the Gaza Strip and documents the pyschosocial vulnerabilities to which girls, in particular, are affected severely.

Leaving no one behind: how the SDGs can bring about real change

Claire Melamed — 2015-03-16

The commitment to 'leave no one behind' has been a key feature of all the discussions on the post-2015 agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The idea that 'no goal should be met unless it is met for everyone' is well established in the rhetoric around the new goals. In theory of course, this means ensuring that every individual achieves the full package of rights and opportunities the SDGs express. However, what this means in practice is still not clear. This briefing looks at how the idea of leaving no one behind can be integrated into the SDGs.

Disaster damage to critical infrastructure and basic services

Tom Mitchell — 2015-03-11

This note provides information relevant to the agreement of target (iv) of the draft Post-2015 Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR), which reads: [Substantially] reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure, including health and educational facilities [by a given percentage] by 2030. Its variant (iv alt bis.) also covers basic services and points to developing their resilience. Produced to give those without expert knowledge on DRR the key facts relating to the areas under negotiation at the World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (WCDRR). The conference was held in Sendai, Japan, 14-18 March 2015, the outcome of which was the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030.

Finance for disaster risk reduction

Katie Peters — 2015-03-11

The focus of this briefing is on international concessional public finance for disaster risk reduction (DRR) (reflecting the nature of target (vi) of the draft 2015 framework). Understanding and tracking such flows from developed to developing countries is complex when DRR is most effectively delivered through investments in risk-sensitive development.

Managing disaster risk in policy and investment decisions at national and subnational levels

Emily Wilkinson — 2015-03-11

This note provides information relevant to the agreement of target (v) of the draft Post-2015 Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, which reads: '[Substantially] increase the number of countries with national and local strategies by 2020; and its variant'. Disaster risk management (DRM) refers to a comprehensive set of measures to: assess and reduce existing risk, and minimise risk creation (collectively termed disaster risk reduction (DRR)); and manage any 'residual' risks that cannot be reduced, through risk transfer mechanisms like insurance, or emergency preparedness and response plans.

Number of people affected by disasters

Emma Lovell — 2015-03-11

This note provides information relevant to the agreement of target (ii) of the draft Post-2015 Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR). People affected by disasters may experience 'unequal access to assistance; discrimination in aid provision; enforced relocation; sexual and gender-based violence; loss of documentation; recruitment of children into fighting forces; unsafe or involuntary return or resettlement; and issues of property restitution. This note was produced to give those without expert knowledge on DRR the key facts relating to the areas under negotiation at the World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (WCDRR). The conference was held in Sendai, Japan, 14-18 March 2015.

Disaster mortality

Aditya Bahadur — 2015-03-11

This note provides information relevant to the agreement of target (i) of the draft Post-2015 Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR), which reads: Reduce disaster mortality per capita by 2030 and its variants.

Disaster mortality refers usually to the number of confirmed dead or those found missing and presumed dead as part of the disaster and after the impact of a disaster event. Deaths as a result of disasters are a common proxy for the severity of an event. As such, they are a lever for humanitarian aid and for resource allocation during emergencies.

This note was produced as part of a series of briefings to give those without expert knowledge on DRR the key facts relating to the areas under negotiation at the World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction (WCDRR). The conference was held in Sendai, Japan, 14-18 March 2015, the outcome of which was the 'Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030'.

Economic losses from disasters

Aditya Bahadur — 2015-03-11

This note provides information relevant to the agreement of target (iii) of the draft Post-2015 Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR), on economic loss, which reads: [Substantially] reduce direct disaster economic loss [by a given percentage] in relation to GDP by 2030 and its variant.

The term 'economic loss' encompasses changes in wealth caused by damage to structures or other physical assets. These can be direct (those resulting from building and infrastructure damage) or indirect (those that follow on from physical damage). These can be reflected in market effects (e.g. loss of income owing to disaster-caused destruction) as well as non-market effects (e.g. loss of leisure time owing to longer commutes as a result of a disaster).

Early warning systems and disaster risk information

Elizabeth Carabine — 2015-03-11

This note provides information relevant to the agreement of target (vii) of the draft Post-2015 Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR), which reads: Ensure access to impact-based early warning and disaster risk information [to 90% of the people] by 2030 and its five variations.

Climate forecasting: Most countries now have early warning systems in place that make use of climate forecasts days, weeks and even months into the future and communicate warnings to relevant local stakeholders. These systems are based on state-of-the art climate models and are of particular use in preparing for climate extremes.

Mobile phone technology: With the spread of mobile phones and networks across the globe, this technology is now increasingly used to communicate warnings and coordinate preparation activities, particularly Short Message Service (SMS) alerts to disseminate mass messages. For example, on detection of the early signs of an earthquake development, Japanese agencies send out SMS alerts to all registered mobile phones in the country.

ICTs: The use of crowdsourced data is gaining traction as internet connectivity and the availability of ICTs such as mobile phones increase. Crowdsourcing was used extensively in the response to the 2010 Haiti earthquake, allowing local people, mapping experts and other stakeholders to communicate what they saw and heard on the ground and to produce information that humanitarian workers could use.

How to stay ahead in a low-carbon global economy

Ginelle Greene — 2015-01-27

Current models examining the possible implications which such changes may reflect for low-income countries include a look at best practices from countries such as Kenya, Cambodia and Nepal, some of which may also prove relevant for the Caribbean context. To this end, ten key measures were identified by the ODI which could help such countries to remain competitive in a future low-carbon global economy. These ten measures further assisted in examining the Caribbean context and may be seen to sum up the various observations and recommendations already examined within this paper.

Institutionalising resilience in development programming

Elizabeth Carabine — 2014-12-15

Key findings of the paper are drawn from examining three spheres of change: programming context, organisational context, and external policy and market context.

Where programming context is concerned, management systems and sectoral guidance should be 'risk smart'; a theory of change to establish how resilience will be built and for whom; and sector programmes should be combined to address root causes of vulnerability and the participation of children and young people should be maximised. Findings around organisational context show we should adapt management systems to support resilience outcomes and processes; develop a financial tracking system to measure resilience expenditure; strengthen staff capacity through peer-to-peer learning, institutionalise an early/warning action system at multiple levels of management and capitalise on risk awareness in the aftermath of a disaster. When it comes to policy and market context the paper suggests partnership working for effective advocacy on risk reduction; mobilising resources through project based consortia; strengthening learning through multi agency partnerships and improving quality standards through innovative partnerships.

Sexual exploitation of adolescent girls in Uganda

David Walker — 2014-11-14

The phenomenon of cross-generational sex, defined as sexual relationships between an adolescent and a partner who is older, usually by 10 or more years,can be linked to many immediate and life-long negative consequence sfor both girls and boys. This study therefore seeks to understand the multiple and overlapping reasons behind cross-generational relationships in Uganda, as well asassociated interventions, in order to promote more comprehensive responses to the issue. Through on-the-ground research we explore the consequences of adolescent experiences of these exploitative relationships, and analyse the extent towhich policy and programming are currently failing this phenomenon. In particular, the research looks at the extent to which income poverty collates with discriminatory social norms in Uganda which contribute to this particular form of child protection violation.

The study is part of a two-year Oak Foundation-funded programme of work that explores the potential for greater linkages between child protection and anti-poverty work in low- and middle-income countries. It is one of three country case studies that looks at sexual violence and exploitation, physical violence, early marriage and inadequate care, and their relationship to income poverty in Uganda, Ethiopia and Vietnam.

What can be done to address intersecting inequalities? Social justice post-2015

Andrew Norton — 2014-10-27

Debates around the content of the post-2015 agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have generated a growing global interestin inequality.

The authors here look at whether the current version of thepost-2015 SDGs will be adequate to address intersecting inequalities, and howthe framework can be improved to encourage action on social justice at thecountry level: to help the most marginalised and disadvantaged people.

A place for panel data in the 'data revolution'?

Lucy Scott — 2014-10-07

This briefing Introduce the concept of panel data and explains how it differs from other types of survey. It discusses the strengths of panel data and considerations when implementing and analysing a panel survey. And provides examples of how existing panel surveys have been able to influence and improve policy and practice. The brief recommends the implementation of nationally-representative panel data to provide a benchmark for measuring progress towards the post-2015 goals.

Fair share: climate finance to vulnerable countries

Neil Bird — 2014-09-21

The international community has fundamentally failed to put in place at sufficient scale either the financing or the delivery mechanisms needed to strengthen the resilience and enhance the adaptation capabilities of vulnerable people. As a result, government and household budgets in the poorest countries have been left to foot the bill for a threat that originates principally in richer countries. Drawing on ODI-led research from three countries in sub-Saharan Africa, this paper highlights the significant public expenditure on adaptation that is taking place through national budgets. This expenditure represents a considerable burden on a limited revenue base.

Arising from this research, a new approach to supporting national action on climate change is proposed. Under this approach, public climate finance from the international community would, at a minimum, match the level of domestic public spending relevant to climate change in those countries acknowledged to be the most vulnerable.

Maximising international finance for development in the poorest and most vulnerable countries

Judith Tyson — 2014-08-08

In this paper risks to these positive trends and related possible policy options are discussed. We suggest that a future coherent policy on low income country financial architecture needs to focus on four key themes.

Post-crisis trends in private capital flows to developing countries

Judith Tyson — 2014-08-07

Private capital flows have the potential to provide essential financing for developing countries for economic growth, but are subject to risks, as well as opportunities, that have been highlighted by the global financial crisis. This paper examines the related post-crisis trends and issues and propose policy options to support positive outcomes.

In this paper post-crisis trends in private capital flows to developing countries are discussed, focusing on the poorest and most vulnerable low income countries (LICs). It argues that post-crisis trends in flows to LICs, whilst relatively small in absolute terms and relative to GNP, are positive. In particular, FDI has expanded steadily and portfolio flows, which fell to negligible levels during the crisis, recovered in 2013 with strong sovereign bond issuances for selected LICs.

Migration, health and dignity in South Asia: Lessons from the EMPHASIS project on migration, women’s empowerment and HIV in Bangladesh, India and Nepal

David Walker — 2014-07-15

The EMPHASIS project has provided a diverse range of services to cross-border migrants in India, Nepal and Bangladesh over the past five years. From August 2009 to September 2014, the project, the only one of its kind in South Asia, adopted a comprehensive model to reach migrants across the mobility continuum (at source, during transit and at destination). The project, supported by The BIG Lottery Fund, UK, was designed to address vulnerabilities of cross-border migrants. The project was implemented through respective CARE country offices working with implementing partners in India, Nepal and Bangladesh.

Global value chain analysis: What's new, what's different, what's missing?

Jodie Keane — 2014-07-08

A focus in made on what is new, innovative and missing from literature on GVCs from which conclusions are drawn for consideration by development agencies and their development partners. This is important given that future processes of globalisation may well reflect the relative success of countries in entering GVCs and upgrading within them.

Trade and the post-2015 agenda: from Millennium Development Goals to Sustainable Development Goals

Jodie Keane — 2014-06-17

Achieving structural change - and adapting to the way in which the world trades - is an essential part of sustainable development. If new global development goals are to reflect the multiple challenges that face today's world, then trade's contribution needs to be part of the equation. While trade is more prominent in the current drafts of the new Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) than it was in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the proposed trade targets do not yet provide a framework to tackle the most pressing trade problems, in particular how countries can insert themselves into global value chains.

Mobilisation and effective use of domestic resources for a transformative post-2015 agenda

Dirk Willem te Velde — 2014-06-01

This briefing discusses how to make domestic resources work for a transformative post-2015 agenda. We define domestic resources as government revenues and domestic private finance (or savings). Domestic resources have grown in various developing countries and groupings both compared to gross domestic product and compared to other financial flows considered in the post-2015 context. The challenge is how to use domestic resources for a post-2015 agenda which is transformative in nature. This represents a marked change from the Millennium Development Goals debate which tended to assume that aid can fill gaps in social sectors, towards a post-2015 framework that aims to use the range of financial resources and non-financial means of implementation for a set of transformations (including from low productivity to high productivity, from high carbon to low carbon and from high inequalities to low inequalities). Such an ambitious agenda will rely to a large extent on mobilising and using domestic resources, although there remain special roles for aid, remittances and international capital flows.

The contribution of Nepal's Child Grant to social inclusion in the Karnali region: country briefing

Tej Prasad Adhikari — 2014-05-15

This study examined the impacts of the Child Grant on five dimensions of social exclusion: 1) household consumption and food security; 2) access to and utilisation of basic services; 3) labour market and economic opportunities; 4) social relations and participation in local communities; and 5) perceptions of local and central government.

The objective was to assess not only the effects of the Child Grant but also its effectiveness in promoting 'transformative' outcomes. The research was guided by the social exclusion framework, which emphasises the importance of assessing impacts of interventions on various dimensions of wellbeing and the extent they tackle drivers of poverty and vulnerability. In assessing the effects of the Child Grant, the study generated evidence on the context-related economic, social and institutional factors that mediated its impact.

Can social protection and labour programmes contribute to social inclusion? Evidence from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India and Nepal

Babken Babajanian — 2014-05-15

Discussions around the post-2015 development goals and the proposed 'leave no-one behind' principle have revived global interest in inequality and the role of social protection in promoting social inclusion. But is there too much emphasis on the potential of social protection alone to address broader goals of equity, social justice and empowerment? Can social protection tackle the wider structural drivers that perpetuate poverty and inequality?

This ODI Briefing discusses the answers to these questions, drawing on primary ODI research from four South Asian countries - Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India and Nepal - which examined whether social protection and labour programmes can tackle the drivers of social exclusion that generate poverty.

Tackling childhood poverty and vulnerability: making the Palestinian National Cash Transfer Programme more effective for children

Paola Pereznieto — 2014-04-28

The most severe challenges to poor and vulnerable households, from the impact of economic crises to human development deficits and daily exclusion, hit their children first and hardest. Social protection programmes have emerged as a key tool to reduce such poverty and vulnerability over the past two decades, but often overlook the multidimensional needs of children and young people. Too often, they remain invisible to policy-makers and to those who design social protection programmes, who tend to focus on the household as a whole.

This paper presents findings from a mixed-methods study of the effects of the Palestinian National Cash Transfer Programme (PNCTP) on children and their families. It explores the impact of the programme across four key dimensions of children's rights, as recognised in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC): survival, development, protection and participation.

Sovereign bonds in sub-Saharan Africa: good for growth or ahead of time?

Dirk Willem te Velde — 2014-04-04

Sovereign bonds present African countries with relatively inexpensive new sources of external finance for economic growth. A once rare phenomenon, sovereign bond inflows to SSA were equivalent to 20% of aid and 12% of foreign direct investment in 2013. While such bonds can support economic growth and transformation, they carry currency risks, roll-over risks and greater macroeconomic volatility. It is time for both national and international governments and the international community to create an enabling environment for more and better bond flows for SSA, by tapering quantitative easing and enhancing liquidity in the bond market.

Biofuels and local food security: what does the evidence say?

Anna Locke — 2014-03-28

As European Union governments debate how to increase the volume of low-carbon fuels in the energy mix, they must ensure that adding more biofuels does not worsen hunger in low-income countries. While modelling research indicates that rising demand for biofuels can increase global food prices, existing evidence does not allow us to state categorically that biofuels projects worsen local food security in developing countries.

Emerging democracies: rising to the challenge

Alina Rocha Menocal — 2013-11-19

Over the last three decades, an astonishing political transformation has taken place. Today, most countries are considered formal democracies - though many of these are democratic in form rather than in substance, and beset by hollow, weak and ineffective political institutions. Furthermore, even if democracy has become the norm, democratisation processes have not been simple or smooth.

Yet, however imperfect, these emerging democracies are here to stay. The question should not be so much wheher they can deliver but how they can do so. In this briefing paper, Alina Rocha,Menocal, outlines the challenge of engaging with emerging democracies and sets out how the international community can give better support, enbaling countries to improve the well-being of their populations and leave no-one behind.

Working with the politics: how to improve public services for the poor

Leni Wild — 2013-09-30

The post-2015 dialogue is an opportunity to develop a practical agenda that will ensure that the principle of ‘leaving no one behind’ translates into concrete changes for the delivery of essential services to the poor. Such an agenda must recognise that both institutional capacity and politics matter for the more equitable delivery of these services. There is no blueprint for this, but evidence from ODI and others points to the need to adopt more grounded, flexible and innovative service-delivery frameworks, which will also require changes to donors’ own models.

The end of cheap rice: a cause for celebration?

Steve Wiggins — 2013-08-14

After more than 30 years of decline as a result of the Green Revolution, rice prices have more than doubled since 2000, rising by almost 120% in real terms. Restocking among major producers and shifts in trade policy have played their part in recent price increases, but are only part of the story. The more fundamental drivers of increased prices are the higher costs of fertiliser, diesel and labour as rural wages rise in parts of Asia.

Rising rural wages are good news, with potentially far-reaching benefits for poverty reduction in Asia, given that an estimated 1.3 billion of Asia's poor and vulnerable people depended on rural labouring for their livelihoods in 2008.

But more costly rice is a problem for vulnerable groups that do not share in the benefits of economic growth, both in Asia and in Africa, where coastal cities have become accustomed to cheap rice imports.

The threat posed by higher rice prices calls for social-protection policies to guard against price shocks. But in the longer run, the rice prices present an opportunity for African farmers to replace Asian imports by domestic production, and then export from areas such as coastal West Africa that have high potential for rice production.

Bangladeshi sailors - characteristics, working conditions and HIV and AIDS-related vulnerabilities

Fiona Samuels — 2013-07-30

Drawing on small-scale qualitative studies in Bangladesh, India and Nepal, this Project Briefing - part of the EMPHASIS (Enhancing Mobile Populations' Access to HIV and AIDS Information Services and Support) project - focuses on Bangladeshi sailors' knowledge of HIV- and AIDS-related diseases. Although reported HIV-risk behaviour is low, the study highlights behaviours such as the low use of condoms and habits in visiting sex workers.

Why neglected tropical diseases matter in reducing poverty

Fiona Samuels — 2013-07-24

This working paper, part of ODI's Development Progress project, looks at the relationship between neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) and poverty. With a view towards progress in development, the paper identifies the problem that NTDs cause, how they present a problem to the alleivation of poverty generally, and how progress has and can be made in tackling them, particularly with the achievement of the MDGs in mind.

The key messages from this working paper are:

Neglected Tropical Diseases have a direct impact on the achievement of the MDGs. Without addressing these diseases, the broader aim of poverty alleviation is unlikely to be achieved.
Straightforward and highly cost-effective strategies are available to control and eventually eradicate or eliminate NTDs.
Success in controlling, eliminating or eradicating NTDs depends on partnerships between multiple constituencies that enable countries to adapt international guidelines to local contexts, integrate NTD programmes into health systems and engage communities in implementation.

Looking back, peering forward: food prices and the food price spike of 2007/08

Steve Wiggins — 2013-07-03

The spike in prices of cereals on world markets in 2007-2008 was as unwelcome as it was unexpected. For poor and vulnerable people it meant hardship as the costs of cereals in many parts of the developing world rose sharply. It is now five years since the price spike. What lessons have been learned, what can we expect for food prices in the future, and what are the policy implications? This ODI Briefing and longer research report summarises current understanding, focusing on insights that have emerged in subsequent years to modify earlier thinking about the price spike.

Looking back, peering forward: what has been learned from the food-price spike of 2007-2008?

Steve Wiggins — 2013-07-03

Pathways to health services for cross-border migrants living with HIV: Nepalese and Bangladeshis at home and in destination sites in India

Fiona Samuels — 2013-06-06

This Project Briefing explores the experiences of people living with HIV (PLHIV) as they migrate. Drawing on small-scale qualitative studies in Bangladesh, India and Nepal, we explore their migration experiences and their patterns of HIV diagnosis and treatment. We then provide examples of the barriers they face in accessing health services (including antiretroviral therapy, care and support services) at source and destination. This is followed by an outline of how EMPHASIS has addressed these barriers. It concludes with some recommendations.

Youth and international development policy: the case for investing in young people

Paola Pereznieto — 2013-05-28

The world now has the largest generation aged 15 to 24 in history, and almost 90% of these young women and men live in developing countries. High fertility rates in the developing world mean that their share of the global population is likely to increase over the next 20 years - and many developing countries are already experiencing a 'youth bulge'.

Young people need support to become catalysts for poverty reduction, good governance and economic growth and to ensure that their voices are heard. This Project Briefing details specific ways in which investment in youth can be put to work to achieve the greatest benefits in terms of economic, social and human rights.

Focusing on what matters in Aid-for-Trade: Increasing effectiveness and delivering results

Yurendra Basnett — 2013-01-10

This Briefing Papers draws on a review that suggests Aid for Trade (AfT) is subject to the same failures of collective action that affect aid in many other sectors. It discusses the success criteria that help to determine the effectiveness of AfT barriers and opportunities, design and implementation, and monitoring and evaluation. It concludes with the following suggestions:

Demand for specific AfT projects must be driven by the recipient country, and AfT must address barriers to trade in a measurable way.
Improving understanding of the nature and causes of coordination failures and information asymmetries specific to the political economy of recipient countries and regions, as well as donor agencies.
Given that trade is, by definition, cross-border, there is a strong economic rationale to strengthen regional institutions as well as for more investment in trans-national corridor approaches.
Investing in the collection of baseline data and providing measurable outcomes (e.g. port clearance time; trade volumes) would help to address concerns about attribution.

Achieving water security

Roger Calow — 2013-01-01

Achieving water security remains an elusive goal across large swathes of sub-Saharan Africa, yet the benefits of investing in water, sanitation and hygiene are clear. Households benefit through a range of health, educational, nutritional and broader livelihood impacts; local, regional, and national economies benefit from greater economic activity, spending, and investment; and over the longer term, households and economies benefit through greater resilience to climate change and shocks. So why are governments and their development partners struggling to meet water and sanitation targets? What factors make it difficult to sustain services at scale? And how can policies and plans for delivering and sustaining services for poor people be strengthened in the face of multiple pressures, including climate change?

This book, the outcome of a five-year research programme in Ethiopia, addresses these questions head-on. Based on extensive field research and in-depth interviews, Achieving Water Security draws conclusions for policy and practice of relevance not just for Ethiopia, but for sub-Saharan Africa more widely.

The EU's Common Agricultural Policy and development

Dirk Willem te Velde — 2012-11-20

This Project Briefing considers how current and proposed Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) measures affect development. It outlines the purpose of the CAP, its history of reform, and some areas of concern around the CAP reform process, before considering the impact of current CAP instruments on developing countries. Its analysis is based on a two-year research programme on CAP reform, which asked three broad questions. (1) How do the present CAP and the proposed reforms affect development and are they coherent with the EU's development objectives? (2) How can we ensure that the effects of the CAP on developing countries and, therefore, on development are monitored over time? (3) Is the CAP a good instrument for achieving its main objectives of supporting and stabilising rural income and protecting the environment or Is there a better alternative? The briefing summarises the main conclusions from six background papers issuing from the CAP reform project, and its analysis also offers policy suggestions for effective and efficient reform, including monitoring global effects and protecting global interests.

Public financial management reform in fragile states: grounds for cautious optimism?

Edward Hedger — 2012-10-15

The ability of the state to tax reasonably and spend effectively is at the heart of statehood itself. And reforms to improve public financial management have been high on the agenda in fragile and conflict-affected states for both governments and donors alike. Yet evidence on what works and what doesn't is limited.

Based on ODI-World Bank research, this Briefing Paper looks at public financial management reforms across eight different fragile states over a ten year period. The research finds that substantial progress in reforming public financial management is possible, even in countries with very low income and capacity. Efforts to strengthen budget execution have tended to outperform work on other dimensions of public financial management. But we still need to know more about how public financial management reforms can contribute to better service delivery and state-building.

Climate extremes and child rights in South Asia: a neglected priority

Katie Harris — 2012-10-11

Climate change and disasters in South Asia, like flooding in Pakistan and cyclones in Bangladesh, are evident. However, the long-term impact on children’s well-being is often overlooked. As a region with over a quarter of the world’s children, girls and boys must be prioritised in disaster response and risk reduction planning. Positive examples include the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation’s Framework for Care, Protection, and Participation of Children in Disasters, which recognises gender differences. The ‘Step Up Campaign’ for Disasters Resilience prioritised children in 2011 and women and girls in 2012. However, these initiatives haven’t influenced local action. Plan International studied how girls and boys in South Asia perceive and experience climate extremes and disasters. This briefing presents findings and policy implications. Key points: Children affected by climate-related disasters in South Asia report gender-based violence, child labour, family break-ups, and barriers to development and learning. Child protection issues are rarely prioritised in disaster risk reduction or climate change adaptation policies. Disaster risk management and climate change adaptation policies must tailor interventions to address critical aspects of child rights, particularly child protection and education.

The aviation industry, the European Union's Emissions Trading Scheme and Small and Vulnerable Economies: development-friendly frameworks

Jodie Keane — 2012-08-15

This Project Briefing examines some of the concerns and contradictions resulting from the EU decision to limit the market supply of CERs to LDCs only from 2013, and suggests that, for SVEs, there is an even greater need to ensure that the regulatory frameworks put in place to manage climate change are development-friendly, including at the national, regional and multilateral level.

Key points: the inclusion of the aviation industry in the European Union's Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) may set a precedent for the inclusion of similar sectors in the future; EU limit on its market for the supply of certified emissions reductions to the Least Developed Countries from 2013 excludes other countries vulnerable to climate change that depend on tourism; and such countries could adopt carbon optimisation taxes, or develop national or regional ETSs.

China: are changes afoot for cereals?

Steve Wiggins — 2012-07-31

Since its economic reforms began in 1978, China has seen rapid economic growth, alongside remarkable growth in agricultural production and exceptional progress on poverty and malnutrition. The country's policy-makers have long been determined that the country must grow sufficient staple foods to meet its domestic needs, with enough in store to cover any unforeseen harvest failures. China has, therefore, been reluctant to import cereals from the world market. Given the vast size of the country, the risks of not being able to procure enough cereals, or having to pay a very high price for them, are too great. For some time, then, those analysing world cereals markets have been able to leave China out of their considerations. China has not been expected to import grain or to offload its large stocks on the world market. Within the country, there has been an expectation that domestic prices would not necessarily vary in step with often volatile world prices.

This Project Briefing provides an overview of China's impact on the world cereals market and examines whether recent changes will impact on current Chinese production.

Disaster risk management in post-2015 policy frameworks: forging a more resilient future

Tom Mitchell — 2012-06-28

This Briefing Paper considers what is needed to strengthen the management of disaster risk over the next two decades and strategies to embed DRM in the international policy frameworks to achieve this. Key points: failure to include disaster risk management (DRM) in the international policy frameworks to be agreed in 2015 could undermine progress and squander investments; given the predicted wide-ranging impact of disasters by 2030, action is required to ensure that DRM is mainstreamed in these policy agreementsand is s upported by an international DRM mechanism.

Delivering maternal health: why is Rwanda doing better than Malawi, Niger and Uganda?

Victoria Chambers — 2012-05-31

Improving maternal health is a global priority but inadequate access to appropriate health care means many women still do not survive pregnancy and childbirth. This is most visible in sub-Saharan Africa, where the overwhelming majority of maternal deaths occur. Continent-wide figures hide disparities within and between countries, however, and some countries provide a beacon of hope.

This Briefing Paper uses new research by the Africa Power and Politics Programme to explore the factors that shape maternal health outcomes in Malawi, Niger, Rwanda and Uganda. It examines the institutional causes of bottlenecks in the provision of maternal health services and considers the policy implications for country actors and donors.

Maternal health outcomes will not improve quickly in low-income Africa as long as the known bottlenecks in public provision are not addressed. Improving the flow of resources will help, but not enough and not on its own. The similarities and differences between Malawi, Niger, Rwanda and Uganda point to the importance of three types of institutional factor in shaping outcomes. This indicates clearly what governments and development partners need to be doing if they are serious about improving maternal health: 1) policies bearing on maternal health outcomes needs to be reviewed regularly to ensure it is internally coherent; 2) provider performance standards need to be enforced, with appropriate upward accountability and monitoring; 3) where local solutions to major bottlenecks are found, they should be supported, not discouraged.

Will Kenya's 2010 Constitution work for women and children?

Pilar Domingo — 2012-05-18

The vision of social equity enshrined in Kenya's 2010 Constitution marks a break with the past. It aims to resolve practices and patterns of social exclusion and establishes the basis for a different narrative of state-society relations.

Drawing on recent research for UNICEF, this Project Briefing outlines some of the key features of the 2010 Constitution, and considers the challenges to implementation. It examines some of the gaps between the constitutional commitment and the existing realities for most Kenyans, especially with regard to the social exclusion of women and children.

It lays out four areas where efforts could be focused to increase social justice and strengthen accountability, and to ensure that institutional and legislative reforms follow a coherent and effective trajectory: (1) Greater dialogue across sectors and policy spheres; (2) More strategic deployment of information and data; (3) More support to coalitions of key actors; (4) Strategic recourse to the principle of 'progressive realisation'. Expectations for Kenya's Constitution remain high; this Project Briefing offers guidance on how to increase the viability of its vision of social equity.

Non-state security and justice in fragile states: Lessons from Sierra Leone

Lisa Denney — 2012-04-25

Investment in both security and justice in fragile states is focused overwhelmingly on reforming state systems. Donors increasingly acknowledge that people in fragile states often rely on security and justice provided by non-state actors, such as chiefs, religious leaders, militia or trade associations, but actual efforts to engage with these actors have been modest to date.

This Briefing Paper presents evidence from fieldwork in Sierra Leone that shows how this state bias in donor programming limits their ability to influence how most people really access security and justice services. It makes the case that donors need to not only engage with non-state providers more frequently, but also recognise that supporting these actors requires different operating procedures.

Citizen voice and state accountability: towards theories of change that embrace contextual dynamics

Fletcher Tembo — 2012-03-14

The development industry is increasingly pushing practitioners to achieve results, and to do better in demonstrating what works, what does not, and explaining why. There is a growing interest in going beyond the measurement of results to being able to understand the basis for success or failure. Consequently, the development of explicit theories of change (ToCs) is starting to be viewed as central to this process, as a key part of what constitutes 'rigour' in impact evaluations. Citizen voice and accountability (CV&A) project interventions produce and reproduce diverse outcomes that are not amenable to linear models of ToCs.

This paper uses a critical analysis of CV&A cases from the Mwananchi Governance and Transparency Fund (GTF) programme to examine how citizen voice and accountability happens in different governance contexts. The analytical framework used in this paper draws on the well-known tools of outcome mapping (OM) and political economy analysis (PEA). Key points: Enabling citizens to influence government accountability is a complex process involving political dynamics at the citizens' interface with state institutions; Developing explicit theories of change (ToCs) from the start of programme planning helps planners delve into complex citizen-state dynamics; Fusing political economy analysis and outcome mapping tools can help develop a deeper understanding of these dynamics to generate more effective ways to achieve outcomes.

If Mozambique reduces net emissions from farming, will the poor suffer?

Steve Wiggins — 2012-02-21

If global warming is to be held to no more than 2ºC this century, then greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions have to be reduced. Agriculture is responsible for between 11% and 35% of total emissions of GHG, the higher figure applying when the effects of converting forest, peat and wet lands to farming are included. There are ways to reduce emissions from agriculture and forestry at relatively low cost. By 2050 the world population is expected to rise to nine billion. Feeding everyone will mean expanding agricultural output by 70% or more. Given the limited land that can be used, much of this increase must come from intensified production, with the danger of increased GHG emissions. Most poor people in the world live in rural areas and many work on farms. If agricultural systems are changed to reduce emissions and capture carbon, will this reduce their production and earnings? This study addresses these issues, examining Mozambique, a low-income country where agriculture is the mainstay of most livelihoods.

Three questions are posed: 1) What might be done to reduce emissions from Mozambican farming? 2) What would happen to the economy in terms of output, employment and, above all, the incomes and food security of poor people in Mozambique? 3) What are the implications for policy-makers trying to mitigate emissions in agriculture, while promoting agricultural development to relieve poverty and hunger?

Where can Japanese Official Development Assistance add value?

Alina Rocha Menocal — 2012-02-08

Japan has an impressive history as a leading international donor, particularly in parts of Asia. Yet in the second decade of the millennium, the country finds itself at a crossroads as it faces the challenge of a more complex global financial system with powerful new players. This research addressed this overarching issue in three different phases. Phase One analysed the history and evolution of the Japanese development assistance model and sought to extract its (potential) value added. Phase Two focused on Japan's engagement in Africa, while Phase Three explored the question of how Japan can enhance its profile and influence in the development field to remain a leader. This Project Briefing synthesises the main findings and key messages that emerged from this research. It highlights areas where Japan has something distinctive to offer and where it has the potential to add substantial value to international development efforts in a new global context. In order to realise the potential value-added of Japanese aid, the analysis of this study suggests that Japan should engage in more deliberate efforts to communicate its model. Our research revealed a strong sense that Japan could invest much more in engaging in policy debates. As suggested by our analysis, despite differences in context (with the UK, for instance, having an active pro-international development constituency largely missing in Japan), lessons could be drawn from the UK government's investments in both policy expertise and in support for research and evidence.

More than just 'demand': Malawi's public-service community scorecard

Leni Wild — 2012-01-10

This Project Briefing seeks to contribute evidence regarding community-based monitoring instruments, such as scorecards through political economy analysis of a community scorecard initiative in Malawi. This research finds that community scorecards demonstrate the potential to result in improved service delivery. Framing such initiatives only as mechanisms to strengthen citizens' voice and demand, however, can sell them short, underestimating the range of mechanisms through which they can impact on service-delivery performance.

The effectiveness of a scorecards initiative appears to depend on a number of local conditions including the characteristics of implementing civil society organisations and of the local community. The quality of local leadership is also particularly important for the delivery of public goods.

In Malawi, the scorecards initiative seems to work particularly well where it has facilitated collaborative spaces or forms of collective problem-solving by actors across the supply and demand side. The provision of information (to citizens or to service providers) is one element, but more important is the process to identify the key stakeholders and bring them together to devise Joint Action Plans. Refocusing on options for collaboration may also identify greater entry points to address more systemic change. Initiatives like scorecards can find it challenging to scale up or to address service-delivery problems that require action above the local level (for example, by a sector ministry or the government). It is key to understand where more systemic changes are needed, and identify opportunities to feed into national level processes and work with national actors. Where the scorecard initiative worked well, it reignited community capacity for self help. In this way, it is an important reminder of the responsibilities and powers of citizens themselves.

Changing focus? How to start taking adaptive capacity seriously

Eva Ludi — 2012-01-04

Change is a constant in the lives of rural people in Africa. They have had to cope with both sudden shocks such as war, rain failures and food price spikes and with long-term stresses such as increasing population pressure on land, declines in their terms of trade, and the degradation of land and water. They will have to cope with these pressures in the future, coupled with the growing impact of climate change. People need the ability to maintain (and even improve) their well-being in the face of change - whatever that change may be. This is what we call adaptive capacity. Drawing on evidence from the Africa Climate Change Resilience Alliance (ACCRA) project - a research and advocacy consortium in Ethiopia, Mozambique and Uganda - this Briefing Paper aims to understand better how different kinds of development interventions affect the characteristics of adaptive capacity. Do interventions take it seriously enough? Are they having a positive effect? How could any positive impact be maximised? This Briefing Paper argues that: adaptation to climate change should not be addressed in isolation: climate change should be part of forward-looking planning; development interventions could be designed and implemented to build people's capacity to adapt to any change - including climate change; and a shift is needed from technology transfer to a focus on people and their agency, which must include better analysis of power and institutions.

Cash transfers for maternal health: design opportunities and challenges in low-resource settings

Fiona Samuels — 2011-12-09

This Project Briefing provides an outline of the key elements to be considered when designing a cash transfer project that aims to improve maternal health outcomes in low-resource settings. What is clear from a design perspective is that timing is critical to engage a woman before she gives birth, during delivery and after she gives birth. Other forms of cash transfers, while facing implementation challenges, do not have to contend with this nine-month-plus timeframe. An additional layer of complexity is trying to measure the impacts of different interventions (conditional versus unconditional transfers), which demands intensive communication and coordination among research and implementation partners. The challenge of project design is not, therefore, just one of content but also one of process. Based on a review of best practice, the authors state: Lack of effective maternal health care services can undermine progress on broader human development; Well-designed cash transfers that aim to be sustainable and have adequate resourcing can improve maternal health; Complementary awareness-raising activities are critical for changing behaviour and attitudes at individual, household and community levels.

Getting better results from assistance to fragile states

Marcus Manuel — 2011-11-09

Prior to the Busan High-Level Forum in November 2011, this ODI Briefing Paper responds to the growing awareness that fragile states require fundamentally different approaches from the development models exercised in more resilient countries, because of the different context of risk.

It posits that the major disconnect in funding and policy coherence between development and humanitarian/peacekeeping aid flows is a demarcation that stifles opportunity and innovation.

It lays out some innovative approaches to budget strengthening in fragile states, and puts forward a series of policy recommendations for both country institutions and development partners to achieve higher levels of speed and flexibility in financial management. This includes increasing the predictability, transparency and coordination of all financial flows - including all external assistance - and a focus on 'shadow alignment', that is, utilising country systems and institutions, and building governmental accountability, while finding inventive ways to mitigate the political risks.

GSP graduation: will it reduce poverty?

Christopher Stevens — 2011-10-21

Europe is reviewing the Generalised System of Preferences (GSP), its broadest-based trade policy to support developing country exports. The European Commission has proposed the most radical changes in the scheme's three-decade history, arguing that this will 'focus the GSP preferences on the countries most in need'. But will it? This Project Briefing summarises ODI research, including case studies on Bangladesh, China, India, Kenya, Madagascar and Viet Nam to identify the potential impact of the proposals on key exports. The research finds that only a very small part of any gains will accrue to poor countries and that workers in the graduates may be just as poor and vulnerable as those in beneficiary states.

Children and social protection in the Middle East and North Africa

Paola Pereznieto — 2011-10-17

This Project Briefing synthesises findings from a study mapping social protection in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, with a particular focus on policies and programmes that impact children and how these might be strengthened. Key findings include: Social protection is an important policy area in the Middle East and North Africa Region, although most related resources are currently spent on regressive subsidies. Despite important progress in child well-being indicators across the region, income, gender and spatial inequities remain that keep children in a situation of poverty and vulnerability; Well designed and evidence-based child-sensitive social protection can be instrumental in improving the equitable development of children in the region.

Social protection in Nigeria: an overview of programmes and their effectiveness

Rebecca Holmes — 2011-09-30

Social protection as a response to poverty is emerging in Nigeria, supported by government and development partners. Programmes remain extremely small-scale in the context of high numbers of poor people. Building institutional knowledge and capacity will be important to generate political and f inancial support to scale up existing programmes. This Project Briefing discusses the current social protection policy and programming landscape in Nigeria and the effectiveness of social protection in addressing poverty and inequality in the country. It argues that social protection in Nigeria is falling short as a response to the needs of the poor and puts forward a number of policy recommendations for consideration by government and development to strengthen the nascent social protection agenda in the country.

HIV-sensitive social protection: the case of Nigeria

Fiona Samuels — 2011-09-30

This Project Briefing presents key findings from a larger study exploring social protection and related programming in a context of high HIV prevalence in Nigeria. Drawing on secondary literature and primary qualitative data collection in four states (Adamawa, Benue, Edo and Lagos), four key issues were explored: the drivers of HIV-related vulnerabilities; the impacts of HIV and AIDS on different groups of people and related coping strategies/mechanisms; institutional responses to HIV and AIDS; and current social protection responses that link with HIV and the potential for replicating and/or scaling these up.

Strengthening linkages between child protection and social protection systems in Nigeria

Nicola Jones — 2011-09-30

Building social protection to reduce risks related to developmental and life-cycle vulnerabilities is increasingly reflected in social transfer programmes globally and in many of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). However, social protection strategies and policy frameworks have often neglected children's vulnerability to violence, exploitation, abuse and neglect. In Nigeria, where child protection is a key concern, important gaps also exist in relation to national policy on social assistance for vulnerable children.

This paper summarises findings from a longer report which aimed to identify policy and programming gaps and offer recommendations on how Nigeria can implement its national development strategies to be more responsive to children's protection vulnerabilities. Drawing on secondary literature along with primary qualitative data collected from four states (Adamawa, Benue, Edo and Lagos), the report focused on linkages between child protection and social protection services regarding three key deficits - child trafficking; harmful forms of child labour; and child domestic abuse. These three issues were selected on account of the international evidence base documenting linkages between social protection initiatives and these child protection challenges.

Fiscal space for social protection in Nigeria

Jessica Hagen-Zanker — 2011-09-30

Nigeria is an oil-rich country, which has achieved high growth rates in the last five years - approximately 6.5% annually. Equally it spends a large proportion of its gross domestic product (GDP) on government expenditure (33.8% of GDP in 2010). Despite this, 54% of the Nigerian population still lives in poverty. Improving social protection would be one way to address this policy paradox.

Nigeria is an oil-rich country, which has achieved high growth rates in the last five years - approximately 6.5% annually. Equally it spends a large proportion of its gross domestic product (GDP) on government expenditure (33.8% of GDP in 2010). However, despite this, 54% of the Nigerian population still lives in poverty (MDGs Nigeria, 2010). Improving social protection would be one way to address this policy paradox.

To date the scope, coverage and spending on social protection in Nigeria have been low. This Project Briefing analyses whether it is possible to create fiscal space for social protection in Nigeria.

This Project Briefing argues that the greatest scope for increasing fiscal space for pro-poor social protection is via: improved mobilisation of domestic resources; allocating an increased proportion of offivial development assistance (ODA) to social protection programmes; and improved public expenditure management.

The authors state that creating fiscal space for social protection should not come at the cost of other social sectors, if the impacts of social protection are to be maximised in terms of human development outcomes. Therefore, donors and domestic social protection advocates need to strengthen engagement with the Nigerian government to support the argument for increased pro-poor expenditure in general and expanded social protection in particular.

Biofuels in Eastern Africa: dangers yes, but much potential as well

Steve Wiggins — 2011-09-28

The potential to produce biofuels in developing countries is vast. Yet there are significant concerns over large-scale development of biofuels. Either current land use would need to be intensified to accommodate biofuel production, probably driving up costs of production, raising food prices, and hurting poor consumers in a world that is increasingly urban. Or else large swathes of land not being cultivated at present would have to be converted to feedstock. This would often include converting tropical forests, peat bogs and wetlands to biofuel production. To understand more about the balance between opportunity and threat represented by biofuels, four countries in Eastern Africa — Ethiopia, Kenya, Mozambique and Tanzania — were chosen for specific study by ODI in partnership with local researchers.

The role of development finance institutions in tackling global challenges

Isabella Massa — 2011-09-19

Even though the world is becoming richer and more globalised, developing countries in particular are increasingly facing global challenges that are setting a new context for development and growth. The risks that are likely to have the greatest impact in the coming decade are climate change, fiscal crises, economic disparity, global governance failures, storms and cyclones, geopolitical conflict, corruption, flooding and water security. Recent discussions have also focused on commodity price volatility. Here, we divide global challenges into three categories: economic - maintaining investment during global economic and financial crises; environmental - facilitating the transition towards a low-carbon development path; and other - providing global health and security, especially in post-conflict countries, and addressing volatility and equity concerns.

We examine the role of development finance institutions (DFIs) in addressing such challenges, amongst a range of other policy responses. We distinguish among four different types of policy response to tackle these global challenges: global rules; developed country policies; aid and public sector DFIs; and >DFIs supporting the private sector.

Making the EU's Common Agricultural Policy coherent with development goals

Nicola Cantore — 2011-09-01

The EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) aims to promote agriculture throughout the EU by increasing farmers' incomes and supporting the provision of public goods such as the environment. It is funded from the European Commission (EC) budget and accounts for roughly 40% of total EC expenditure. The CAP has the potential to affect developing countries in a variety of ways. The EU has recognised that making development policy in isolation is not sufficient. Its commitment to Policy Coherence for Development seeks to ensure that all policies, not only development assistance, promote growth in developing countries. This briefing paper analyses CAP reform options against development goals and finds that research is urgently needed to analyse the coherence between the reforms and European development policy. Research areas, including the various effects of CAP reform on developing countries, the EU internal policy process, the new global environment of high price levels and volatility, and the links between economic and environmental sustainability, set an agenda for ODI and other researchers in the coming months.

Fragile states: measuring what makes a good pooled fund

Erin Coppin — 2011-08-26

The practice of pooling funds from multiple donors into a single instrument is becoming an increasingly popular method of delivering aid to fragile states. However;there are differences in how well individual pooled funds are operating.

This Project Briefing introduces a potential tool for scoring the effectiveness of individual pooled funds;allowing for their systematic comparison. The briefing goes on to score and compare funds in Afghanistan;Liberia and South Sudan;demonstrating how the tool can be used to identify good practice.

Taking responsibility for complexity

Harry Jones — 2011-08-04

Many of the problems that face policy-makers are complex. Implementation must often contend with interlinked problems, navigate non-linear and unpredictable change processes, and engage a diverse range of stakeholders. This Briefing Paper builds on ODI research over three years to review the implications of complexity for policy and programme implementation. It has three aims: to give readers the tools to decide when a problem is complex, outline why this matters, and provide guidance on how to achieve results in the face of complexity. There is a growing collection of models, tools and approaches to intervene effectively in the face of these so-called 'wicked' problems to help implementers deal with the challenges more systematically, explicitly and rationally. However, attempting to address complexity is a double-edged sword. On the one hand there are tools to use and growing legitimacy for approaches not previously seen as 'scientific' or 'rigorous'. On the other hand, it means giving visibility to some practices that were once hidden from sight. Actors will find themselves held accountable for aspects of their work that used to slip beneath the radar, such as the political and relational challenges of implementation. This may be an uncomfortable transition. However, it is essential in order to ensure the effective implementation of policies and programmes.

Lessons on accountability in forest governance: the Mama Misitu Campaign against illegal logging in Tanzania

Pilar Domingo — 2011-07-27

In early 2007, the Tanzanian press unleashed a national debate about the costs of illegal logging in the country, by reporting the findings of a report published by TRAFFIC: Forestry, governance and national development: lessons learnt from a logging boom in southern Tanzania. This revealed some of the true costs of illegal logging.

The report authors tackled head-on the controversial political realities that stand in the way of transparent and environmentally sustainable forest resource governance. They also recommended actions to improve outreach and advocacy, monitoring and transparency, and to promote better forest management practices. While there was significant resistance to the initial publication of the report, it could not be ignored once it entered the public domain, as it had been backed by the government and foreign donors, and was published with the support of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism.

The TRAFFIC report prompted a collective and rapid response by a coalition of civil society organisations (CSOs) from the Tanzania Forestry Working Group (TFWG) to initiate the Mama Misitu ('Mother Forests') Campaign (MMC) to promote better forest governance. The campaign is coordinated by the Tanzania Natural Resource Forum (TNRF).

This Project Briefing examines the experience and lessons of the MMC, drawing on findings from a research project undertaken in 2010 jointly by the Overseas Development Institute, (ODI) and the TNRF.

Involving youth in development policy research: lessons learned

Nicola Jones — 2011-06-30

Youth and youth voices have, historically, been marginalised from development policy dialogues. The last five years have seen a change, however, with youth gaining greater recognition, as reflected in a number of high profile publications.

This increasing attention has been fuelled by a concern about rising youth unemployment and violence, especially amid growing fears about fragile states and religious fundamentalism. Examples of participatory research initiatives with youth in developing countries on development challenges, however, remain limited.

This work therefore provides contributions towards understanding the impacts of global shocks on youth cohorts at the local level. It additionally describes how youth can participate meaningfully in the research itself and provide valid data - but also outlines the required time and resource investments needed to address the mentoring and communcations challenges central to youth-based participatory research.

An opportunity for change? gender analysis of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act

Rebecca Holmes — 2011-02-25

The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) guarantees 100 days minimum wage employment to rural households in India. Enacted in 2006, MGNREGA is a flagship programme now reaching over 50 million households across the country. It aims to promote improvements in grassroots democracy and facilitate transparency through community accountability mechanisms, e.g. the social audit forum where villages participate in the assessment of programme implementation. MGNREGA is part of the Government of India's broader commitment to inclusive growth, which aims to address both the economic and social underpinnings of poverty. This Project Briefing presents evidence from qualitative and quantitative research carried out by the Overseas Development Institute and the Indian Institute of Dalit Studies in the state of Madhya Pradesh. It assesses the extent to which MGNREGA integrates a gender-sensitive approach to public works programmes to support the inclusion of women - especially from marginalised communities - in India's poverty reduction and growth processes.

Security, humanitarian action and development

Victoria Metcalfe-Hough — 2011-02-04

This briefing paper outlines the key opportunities and challenges presented by a more integrated approach to international engagements to build stability in fragile states. In particular, it considers the risks and benefits of greater coordination between humanitarian, development and security agendas, suggesting that the potential tension between these objectives must be recognised and addressed in a pragmatic and principled manner.

Responding to external economic shocks: why state capacity and political incentives matter

Marta Foresti — 2011-01-04

The global financial crisis continues to affect prospects for growth and poverty reduction in developing countries. As in previous economic crises, the impact varies between countries. This reflects differences in economic structures, historical legacies and policies, and in the resulting levels of vulnerability to economic shocks. There is, however, growing recognition of the importance of the governance and institutional set up of a country in responding effectively to financial crises and other similar shocks. What is perhaps less clear is how, in reality, these affect policy responses and their implementation. There is a lack of evidence on the incentives for more sustainable and effective reform processes, beyond the immediate crisis, and on the blockages that might prevent such reform. These issues are key to understanding the dynamics underlying developing countries' policy responses to economic shocks, and to informing both domestic and international priorities in this area. A political economy approach to the analysis of the role of state capacity and incentives to respond to economic shocks would help to fill these knowledge gaps. While more research is needed, this Project Briefing reviews the range of policy responses to the global financial crisis, as a first step. It sets out some useful frameworks and concepts to deepen our understanding of these issues, and to inform more effective assistance for countries affected by similar external shocks in the future.

Support to political parties: a missing piece of the governance puzzle

Leni Wild — 2010-12-06

Attempts to build better governance and more accountable states cannot ignore the key role of political parties. Donor support for governance and accountability has, traditionally, focused on demand and supply-side institutions inside and outside of government, including line ministries and civil society. Political parties are often sidelined, reflecting concerns about political sensitivities. At times, it is true that political parties themselves have been the 'weakest link', reinforcing patronage or the centralisation of power. There is, however, increasing recognition of their importance, not just during elections, but in relation to a wide range of governance and accountability processes. There is scope for donor agencies to support political parties, but this needs to go beyond technocratic solutions and build stronger links between development and diplomacy.

Multilateral resource allocation: best practice approaches

Tony Faint — 2010-11-10

Government donors provide billions of dollars in development assistance via multilateral organisations (MOs) each year. But what would best practice in donor allocation of resources to MOs look like? And what are the principles and options for a manageable and auditable allocation system? An ODI study for the UK Department for International Development (DFID), completed in 2009, reviewed current best practice and made proposals for improvement/refinement. This Project Briefing reviews the key findings and recommendations from the final report on that study (Highton et al., 2009), which proposes a structured approach to gather and use all relevant evidence to facilitate informed decisions on resource allocation.

Planning and budgeting in Southern Sudan: starting from scratch

Fiona Davies — 2010-10-29

What factors are needed for successful budget reforms after conflicts? Experience in Southern Sudan can shed light on this crucial issue. Since its creation in 2005, the Government of Southern Sudan has had real success in developing integrated systems for planning and budget preparation. These systems have been built from scratch, against the backdrop of practices that existed both before and during the conflict. Two factors, in particular, have influenced this success: Strong technical leadership from an integrated Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, responsible for planning, budgeting and aid coordination; and System development that was tailored to this specific context, with incremental improvements aligned to development in local capacity. International technical assistance (TA) played a more mixed role - positive when focusing on the development of context-appropriate systems, negative when trying to introduce systems that exceeded local capacity to manage them.

Brazil: an emerging aid player

Lídia Cabral — 2010-10-28

Emerging aid donors, such as China, India and, increasingly, Brazil, are changing the international aid architecture and challenging some of its tenets, such as the current consensus on 'aid effectiveness'. Once, aid flowed in one direction from the richest industrialised nations to the developing world - a strict 'North to South' aid stream. Things are now more complex, with aid moving across the South, and old definitions of developed and developing losing their meaning. The volume of aid from emerging donors reached between $9.5 and $12 billion in 2006: 7.8% to 9.8% of total aid flows, according to a UN estimate. Debates on emerging donors, South-South cooperation (SSC) and how these relate to the 'aid effectiveness' principles defined by the Paris Declaration and the Accra Agenda for Action, are sparking interest among development practitioners in the run up to the Fourth High Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness, to be held in Busan, South Korea, in 2011. Yet little is known about the development cooperation practices of emerging donors or, most importantly, the impact of their aid in recipient countries. This paper fills some of these gaps by reviewing the institutional set up of Brazil's aid programme and the implications of its rise in the aid scene on debates around emerging donors and development cooperation. It draws on a study produced by ODI on Brazilian technical cooperation for development commissioned by the Brazilian Cooperation Agency and funded by the UK Department for International Development.

Social protection programming: the need for a gender lens

Rebecca Holmes — 2010-10-24

Social protection is an increasingly popular response to poverty and vulnerability, but gender issues have been integrated unevenly at best. Many programmes assume that targeting women will, in itself, address gender inequality, and while this is an important first step, the role of gender in social protection is more complex. The promotion of gender equality is often a secondary or indirect programme objective and social protection has often reinforced the traditional roles of women and girls, men and boys. Few programmes have harnessed the potential for a transformation of gender relations that would improve the impact of programmes on poverty and vulnerability. This Briefing Paper draws on multi-country primary research on the incorporation of gender issues into the design and implementation of a range of social protection instruments. The research, funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) and the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID), was carried out with national partners in Africa, Asia and Latin America. A mixed methods approach combined key informant interviews, household surveys, focus group discussions and life histories with men, women and children across the lifecycle.

Gender, politics and social protection

Nicola Jones — 2010-10-23

If tackling gender discrimination 'makes development and economic sense', as the World Bank suggests, why is social protection so often gender-blind? Social protection may be high on the policy agenda in international development circles, but the way it plays out in practice at national and local level is deeply political, with significant consequences for gender relations and gender-related outcomes. While there is a robust body of evidence on the different ways in which women and men experience poverty and vulnerability, this is seldom reflected systematically in social protection strategies, policies or programmes. This briefing paper explores the political economy of social protection and its effects on gender relations. It draws on multi-country research by ODI and national partners funded by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) and the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID). It weaves together findings from interviews with key players, household surveys, focus group discussions and life histories with men, women and children across the lifecycle in Africa, Asia and Latin America. Rather than focus exclusively on cash and asset transfers, our research covers other social assistance instruments such as public works schemes and subsidy programmes for the poor.

A gender lens for Viet Nam's flagship poverty reduction programme

Nicola Jones — 2010-10-20

While there is a growing body of evidence on the gendered patterning of vulnerabilities in Viet Nam, gender inequalities tend to be overlooked in the country's social protection policies and programmes in general, and in the NTPPR in particular. There is little recognition, for example, of the gendered aspects of human capital development and income generating opportunities. This Project Briefing synthesises research findings from the first stage of a three-year AusAID-funded study by the Overseas Development Institute,, (ODI) and Viet Nam's Institute of Family and Gender Studies (IFGS), which aims to plug this gap by exploring the linkages between gender, food security and social protection effectiveness.

Food price transmission: rising international cereals prices and domestic markets

Sharada Keats — 2010-10-14

From take-off in January 2007 to peaks in the first half of 2008, maize prices increased by 74%, wheat by 124%, and rice 224%. Rising prices for these key staples rang alarm bells. With ensuing protests and riots across the globe, the food security of vulnerable people began its own spike up the international development agenda.

Modellers were quick off the block to assess likely impacts, making some basic assumptions about price transmission from international to domestic markets. But how valid were these assumptions for the 2007/08 crisis? Several studies have addressed this question: a recent ODI study synthesised their findings.

Aid effectiveness in Malawi: options appraisals and budget support

Heidi Tavakoli — 2010-09-22

This Project Briefing examines an attempt by the ODI to develop and apply a framework to enhance measurement of the net benefits of different options for aid delivery in Malawi by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) -- an options appraisal. It looks at why DFID has strengthened its economic appraisal and summarises the methodology and findings from Malawi. Finally, it considers the implications for operational practice and gives recommendations for the design of options appraisals in the future. The research suggests that, according to the Malawi options appraisal framework, General Budget Support (GBS) is the marginally preferred aid modality. The Malawi appraisal is a good starting point for the development of a more robust appraisal model for wider use.

Aid and accountability in health: what can donors do differently?

Leni Wild — 2010-09-16

This Project Briefing, the third of three, draws on ODI research in Uganda and Zambia on aid accountability in the health sector, to focus on donors. The health sector is seen as a 'tracer sector' for accountability in aid, in part because of the high levels of support it receives. The ODI research, on behalf of World Vision UK, finds that the failure of many donors to fulfil their commitments to mutual accountability in the health sector has contributed to one-way accountability - to donors rather than to citizens - in Uganda and Zambia. It suggests that donors need greater interaction with domestic processes and accountability mechanisms.

Aid and accountability in health: country findings

Leni Wild — 2010-09-15

This Project Briefing, the second of three, draws on ODI research in Uganda and Zambia on aid and accountability in the health sector. The research, carried out on behalf of World Vision UK suggests that there are limits to the impact of donor aid on strengthening accountability in recipient countries, which is complex, dynamic and largely driven by internal processes. Some forms of donor aid can, however, make a difference, either by 'doing no harm' or by strengthening domestic accountability systems. The evidence from Uganda and Zambia reveals too little mutual accountability between governments and donors.

Aid and accountability in health: key themes and recommendations

Leni Wild — 2010-09-14

The aid effectiveness agenda has had a mixed impact on domestic accountability in health so far, according to the first of three Project Briefings on this issue. ODI research in Uganda and Zambia, on behalf of World Vision UK, suggests that information and greater transparency should sit at the heart of improvements to both domestic and mutual accountability in health. Donors need to consider their own behaviour and incentives for aid accountability in health, in their aid relationships and within their agencies. Two additional Project Briefings examine the implications for developing country governments and for donors.

Financial inclusion, household investment and growth in Kenya and Tanzania

Karen Ellis — 2010-09-13

Groundbreaking ODI research shows a link between access to financial services and household investment in education or a business, which can contribute to economic growth in developing countries. While semi-formal and informal financial services are important for access, households are more likely to use formal financial services for investment. Therefore, policies are needed to address the barriers that prevent people accessing formal financial services, and undertaking such investment.

This Project Briefing summarises the findings of research by ODI, which utilises FinScope survey data from Kenya (where it is called FinAccess) and Tanzania to examine this question by looking at the impact of access to financial services on household investment.

The economic impact of competition

Karen Ellis — 2010-07-26

How do government policies and business practices affect the degree of competition in a given market? How does competition, in turn, affect market outcomes, such as prices, innovation and access to services? Summarising the findings of a DFID-funded study, this paper compares the economic performance in four product markets in Bangladesh, Ghana, Kenya, Viet Nam and Zambia, and finds that the very different policy frameworks in place have a significant impact on competition, market outcomes and economic performance.

The MDGs and gender

Rebecca Holmes — 2010-06-11

Gender issues cuts across all eight of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Progress on the MDGs requires a coordinated policy approach that is sensitive to gender-specific discrimination and risks. This Policy Brief, which draws on previous ODI Briefing Papers, argues that social protection could support progress towards the MDGs, but only if gender equality is seen as critical for programme effectiveness.

Economic growth and the MDGs

Claire Melamed — 2010-06-07

The link between economic growth and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) lies in how the opportunities and benefits created by growth support the human development of the poorest people. This Briefing Paper argues that equitable distribution of the benefits of growth, in the form of progressive taxation and pro-poor public spending on health, education and social protection, is an essential part of how growth contributes to the MDGs.

Gender-sensitive social protection and the MDGs

Rebecca Holmes — 2010-06-03

Gender dynamics cut across all of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), but are explicit in only two: MDG3 on gender equality and MDG5 on maternal mortality. This is too narrow, and overlooks other gender-specific risks and vulnerabilities.

This Briefing Paper argues that policy dialogue on the MDGs must recognise that the goals are linked by the gender dynamics of power, poverty and vulnerability. It says that gender-sensitive social protection can contribute to the goals, but only if gender equality is seen as critical to programme effectiveness. Advances in gender-sensitive programme design are being made but more investment is needed to build the capacity of programme staff and participants to strengthen implementation outcomes.

The G-20 in 2010: cementing the BRICKs of development

Dirk Willem te Velde — 2010-05-20

The G-20 has taken centre stage in global economic governance following its swift and decisive response to the financial crisis. But the G-20 needs to tackle unfinished business urgently; there is no clearly defined role for the private sector in the G-20 and there is no formalised way of considering the interests of the poorest countries.

Trading out of crises and reducing vulnerability

Jodie Keane — 2010-05-17

Trade is a major source of growth and provides a huge opportunity for developing nations to leverage the opportunities of the global economy. But to date, trade negotiations have slowed to a snail's pace. To reboot them, the UK needs to work within the EU to adopt a new approach to the Doha negotiations that better recognises and works with developing countries. EU preferences also need to be updated for the 21st century. Any global or regional climate change deal must also be dovetailed with the multilateral trading regime and with development priorities.

Restricting migration: a bad (development) idea

Massimiliano Cali — 2010-05-16

Migration is a vexed domestic issue, but on a world scale there is strong evidence that migration is good for development. There is no empirical evidence that restricting migration reduces skills shortages in developing countries, instead the emphasis should be on investing in higher education and vocational training in developing countries. Recipient countries should also reduce the cost of remitting funds to countries of origin.

The private sector and development

Karen Ellis — 2010-05-15

The private sector is critical for jobs, innovation, growth and poverty reduction. In this changing world the private sector has a key role in driving low carbon growth through green investments in developing countries. Much more needs to be done to ensure that the incentives, policy frameworks and business models are in place for these investments to contribute positively to development.

Why accountability matters

Leni Wild — 2010-05-12

Accountability is at the heart of what makes development effective. Accountability reform is not just about improving the way aid is delivered, it is also fundamentally about improving the way governments relate to citizens and the roles and responsibilities that govern the international system. Accountability and transparency go hand in hand and support for it must cut across public, private and voluntary sectors.

The MDG fundamentals: improving equity for development Closing the gap between the haves and the have-nots

Milo Vandemoortele — 2010-04-30

Five years from the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) deadline, there is growing debate on how to accelerate progress in human development - particularly around the 2010 MDG review process. Historically, progress in development has been seen in terms of economic conditions. A more complete understanding of development is captured by the MDGs, which include indicators for health, gender equality, education and the environment. This paper argues that promoting equity in human development by reducing the gap between the haves and the have-nots will accelerate progress towards the MDGs.

The MDG fundamentals: improving equity for development

Milo Vandemoortele — 2010-04-30

What does an effective multilateral donor look like?

Cecilie Wathne — 2010-03-31

Recipients have their own views on who are the most effective multilateral donors, and feel that it is depth of commitment, responsiveness to country circumstances and support for recipient-driven policy that are critical. This Project Briefing summarises findings from ODI research on recipient stakeholder perceptions of multilateral donor effectiveness. It draws on evidence from three separate studies, finding that recipients and donors agree, in general, on what makes aid effective, but some crucial differences in perspective remain.

Making sector budget support work for service delivery: an overview

Tim Williamson — 2010-02-03

There has been relatively little systematic evidence on how Sector Based Support (SBS) works in practice, and how effective it is in helping countries improve the delivery of their basic services, such as health and education. This Project Briefing is the first of three emerging from a study of Sector Budget Support in Practice, carried out for the Strategic Partnership with Africa (SPA). The findings and associated recommendations fill a significant gap in current aid policy thinking. This Project Briefing provides an overview of the key findings: that SBS is increasingly popular but under-researched; that access to basic services has improved, but not their quality and equity; and that effective SBS requires less 'traceability' and more focus on downstream delivery.

Making sector budget support work for service delivery: good practice recommendations

Tim Williamson — 2010-02-03

The second in a series of three Project Briefings on Sector Based Support (SBS), this briefing focuses on good practice recommendations. It finds that complementary SBS and general budget support (GBS) packages are the preferred modalities for support to service delivery, and that funding, dialogue, conditionality and capacity-building practices must change for SBS to realise its promise. It concludes that the required focus on service quality at the front line will not happen automatically

Making sector budget support work for service delivery: wider policy implications

Tim Williamson — 2010-02-03

The third and final Project Briefing on Sector Based Support (SBS) examines the wider policy implications of a study on this theme. It finds that incentives are the key to what sector budget support (SBS) does well and what it does badly, and that strengthening service delivery incentives will involve substantial multi-level efforts by SBS donors and partners. It argues that these efforts must address the underlying causes, rather than the symptoms, of weak incentives.

Greater aid transparency: crucial for aid effectiveness

Samuel Moon — 2010-01-07

This paper sets out and explores the link between donor aid and recipient country budgets, and the role greater transparency about aid can play in improving budget transparency, the quality of budgetary decisions, and accountability systems. The paper goes on to explore how current initiatives to improve aid transparency can best support better budgets and accountability in aid dependent countries. These efforts provide an important opportunity to enhance the effectiveness of both the recipient governments' own spending and the aid they receive from donors.

It concludes that publishing better information on aid requires compatibility with recipients' budgeting and planning systems. The research findings suggest that recipient budgets bear many similarities, but this is not reflected in current formats for reporting aid. Finally, it concludes that the poorest countries will lose out if donors do not publish aid information that is easy to link with recipient government budget systems.

Research related to this paper has been funded by the International Budget Partnership and Publish What You Fund with the aim to inform and influence the International Aid Transparency Initiative, an ongoing process that is building an international standard for aid information as a follow on from the resolutions in the Paris Declaration and the Accra Agenda for Action.

Human rights and pro-poor growth

Marta Foresti — 2010-01-04

There is a growing recognition of the relationship between human rights and development, and between the failure to realise rights and continuing poverty, exclusion, vulnerability and conflict.

This Project Briefing reviews the findings of an ODI study on the relationship between human rights and pro-poor growth, identifying points of connection, as well as contradiction. It provides practical recommendations for a more integrated approach to human rights and pro-poor growth. The study was commissioned by the Governance Network (GOVNET), under the OECD Development Assistance Committee (OECD-DAC), to build the foundations for effective collaboration between different constituencies for sustainable development.

Doha and the global crisis

Susan Prowse — 2009-11-30

Trade and growth have been key drivers in reducing poverty. This Briefing Paper contends that leaving the Doha Development Agenda (DDA) hanging and the WTO in isolation is not the best policy strategy in the current economic environment. As well as examining the current international macroeconomic environment and pressures for non-market intervention, it looks at what the DDA can offer, in terms of bindings, market access and benefits for poor countries. It argues that concluding the DDA is central to enhancing multilateral cooperation and future prospects.

Cash transfers: targeting

Rachel Slater — 2009-11-20

The implementation of cash transfer programmes in low-income countries is constrained by three crucial factors: financial resources, institutional capacity and ideology. There is evidence that, on average, targeting provides more resources to the poor than random allocations. But good targeting does not happen easily or without costs.

This project briefing summarises the main findings from the targeting component of ODI's three-year research project on cash transfers. The research draws broad lessons on the targeting of social cash transfers and identifies issues that are particular to cash transfers.

Cash transfers: graduation and growth

Rachel Slater — 2009-11-20

Despite their limited coverage and, usually, the small amounts of cash distributed to individuals, cash transfer programmes continue to be ambitious in their stated objectives, with many claiming that they are likely to result in graduation (however defined) out of poverty at a household level, and in growth at both local and national level.

ODI has carried out a review of such expectations, as part of a wider, three-year study on cash transfers, funded by the Swiss Agency for Development Cooperation.

Cash transfers: affordability and sustainability

Anna McCord — 2009-11-20

Drawing on case studies in Kenya, Malawi and Zambia, this paper explores the affordability and sustainability of providing cash transfers to alleviate poverty.

The paper reviews cash transfer programme coverage and costs, the fiscal implications of programme extension to cover all eligible beneficiaries, the extent of national government resource allocation to cash transfers, the role of donor funding and perceptions of affordability and prospects for the sustainability of cash transfer programming.

The case studies were part of a three-year study on cash transfers by ODI, funded by the Swiss Agency for Development Cooperation .

Cash transfers and political economy in sub-Saharan Africa

Anna McCord — 2009-11-20

This Project Briefing looks at cash transfers and political economy issues, drawing on case studies from Kenya, Malawi and Zambia, low-income countries which have started to implement cash transfer programmes in recent years.

The research was carried out as part of a wider, three-year study by ODI on cash transfers, funded by the Swiss Agency for Development Cooperation. In all three countries, cash transfers were generally perceived as an acceptable and appropriate response to poverty by key national stakeholders. However, there was little evidence of political will to provide cash transfers to the poor as a whole, and a strong preference for cash transfers that reach only particular sub-categories of the poor.

Cash transfers: lump sums

John Farrington — 2009-11-20

ODI has carried out a review of the performance of lump sum cash transfers, as part of a wider, three-year study on cash transfers funded by the Swiss Agency for Development Cooperation.

Lump sums were found to perform better in post-emergency than development contexts, especially where beneficiaries were familiar with the assets that had to be replaced (fishing boats, livestock etc) and markets continued to function. In development contexts, appropriate complementary measures, such as the provision of land in housing projects and of small, time-bound stipends and veterinary services in livestock projects, resulted in moderate success. Phased, conditional payments were time-consuming but generally effective. Without these complementary actions, lump sums are more akin to investment funds than social transfers, tend to favour men over women, and allow those who invest early to take a lion's share of market opportunities.

Raising the game: mainstreaming children's rights

Caroline Harper — 2009-11-18

Twenty years on from the adoption of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, children's rights are still not seen as a serious political issue. This Briefing Paper argues that children's rights should be mainstreamed into broader development policy debates. It outlines how the mainstreaming of children's rights requires an understanding of topics beyond a narrow focus on 'children's issues', such as health and education. The paper provides a framework for the assessment of the visibility of children in policy and programming, as a guide to policy makers and practitioners looking at this area. It concludes that mechanisms are needed urgently, to increase the visibility of children in development policy dialogue, including a high-level international commission on the impacts on children of the 3-F crisis (food, financial and fuel).

Aid effectiveness through the recipient lens

Cecilie Wathne — 2009-11-17

The Paris and Accra commitments are insufficient to ensure donors improve the development impact of their aid, according to this Briefing Paper. It highlights key findings from in-person interviews with mid-range and senior politicians, and senior government officials in Ethiopia, Sierra Leone and Zambia. In addition, it draws upon findings from previous ODI research on stakeholder perceptions and the messages emerging from partner country consultations preceding the Third High Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness in 2008. This exclusive, and unfiltered, focus on the perspectives of recipients highlights the opinions of a group of stakeholders that is often under-represented in the international arena. It finds that greater understanding of the terms 'predictability', 'transparency' and 'mutual respect' is needed, and proposes a more imaginative agenda, coupled with intelligent and purposeful donor action, as part of the solution.

The global financial crisis and developing countries: taking stock, taking action

Dirk Willem te Velde — 2009-09-21

A year on from the collapse of Lehman Brothers and talk in developed countries has moved from recession to recovery. Recent OECD and International Monetary Fund reports suggest that financial conditions in developed countries have improved: there has been a boost in business confidence, export orders are growing, the US housing market has bottomed out and industrial production in emerging markets has begun to increase. Bolstered by successful implementation of fiscal stimuli and collective action to support financial markets, there is a new belief in the role of the state to correct market failures. But just as the financial crisis engulfed the world, affecting those who played no part in the original causes, it is crucial that any recovery from the crisis has the same global reach.

Helping researchers become policy entrepreneurs

John Young — 2009-09-10

Donors spend billions of dollars on development research each year, but what is the impact on policy? This Briefing Paper summarises ODI's work on understanding how policy processes operate in the real world, as part of its mandate to inspire and inform policy and practice that lead to the reduction of poverty. The paper presents six key lessons that are essential to any researcher or organisation wishing to generate evidence-based policy change, and an eight-step approach for policy entrepreneurs wishing to maximise the impact of research on policy. This is known as the RAPID Outcome Mapping Approach (ROMA).

Social protection to tackle child poverty in Mali

Paola Pereznieto — 2009-09-09

Mali has improved its social and economic policy performance during the past decade. Despite various adverse shocks, such as exposure to drought, sound macroeconomic management has produced real GDP growth averaging a sturdy 5% per annum from 1994 to 2006. Yet poverty remains widespread and, despite the government's efforts to increase access to basic services, human development indicators remain low.

As part of a broader study on childhood poverty and social protection in West and Central Africa, this paper provides an overview of poverty, vulnerability and risk in Mali and discusses the extent to which social protection systems and instruments are addressing child-specific experiences of poverty and vulnerability (UNICEF and ODI, 2009).

Social protection to tackle child poverty in Senegal

Paola Pereznieto — 2009-09-09

Senegal has made significant progress in poverty reduction, with the proportion of its people living in poverty falling from 67.9% in 1994 to 50.6% in 2005. There has been economic growth, although below the 7% required to achieve the targets of the country's second Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) 2006-2010, and this shortfall challenges the country's prospects of reaching the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Senegal has improved its human development indicators, although national figures hide disparities across gender, regions and income levels, indicating the need for policy and programmes to close these gaps.

As part of a broader study on childhood poverty and social protection in West and Central Africa, this paper provides an overview of poverty, vulnerability and risk in Senegal and discusses the extent to which social protection systems and instruments are addressing childspecific experiences of poverty and vulnerability.

Social protection to tackle child poverty in Equatorial Guinea

Rebecca Holmes — 2009-09-09

The rapid economic growth of Equatorial Guinea is unparalleled almost anywhere in the world. From one of the world's poorest countries in the 1970s and 1980s, it became the first ever high-income country in sub-Saharan Africa in the 2000s. However, while the country has flourished economically as a result of oil revenues, it is dangerously over-dependent on this single non-renewable commodity and has very poor social indicators. This paper, based on a recent research report on social protection and children in Equatorial Guinea, discusses how the country could develop a social protection system that would help reduce childhood poverty and vulnerability and translate the high rate of economic growth into broader human development.

Conflict, education and the intergenerational transmission of poverty in Northern Uganda

Kate Bird — 2009-08-24

This Project Briefing draws on a study in Northern Uganda to examine the long-run, or intergenerational, impact of conflict. A research project conducted recently by the Chronic Poverty Research Centre (CPRC), titled Conflict, Education and the Intergenerational Transmission of Poverty in Northern Uganda, explores the role of education in supporting resilience and, in turn, poverty trajectories. The research has confirmed that conflict has long-term and intergenerational impacts on well-being and livelihoods. It has also found, however, that education supports resilience and helps prevent declines into chronic poverty during and following conflict, and that universal policies, such as Education for All, are not enough to address regional imbalances post-conflict.

'State-building for peace': navigating an arena of contradictions

Alina Rocha Menocal — 2009-08-17

This Briefing Paper argues that, while peace-building and state-building may share basic characteristics, there are important tensions between them. The concept of 'state-building for peace' is an arena full of contradictions, which need to be recognised by donors if their assistance is to have a genuine impact. The Briefing Paper concludes that effective donor engagement requires humility, better political understanding, greater sensitivity to context, and sustained, long-term commitment.

Closing the gap between climate adaptation and poverty reduction frameworks

Martin Prowse — 2009-06-02

National frameworks to reduce poverty and adapt to climate change rarely, if ever, interlink. Most Poverty Reduction Strategies (PRSs) and National Development Strategies (NDSs) screened during a review by ODI ignore climate change issues almost entirely. Gaps and disconnects between climate adaptation and poverty reduction frameworks undermine efforts to cushion the poverty impact of climate change. More effort is needed to improve links between climate change adaptation plans and projects, and country-led poverty reduction strategies.

Conservation through use: Lessons from the Mesoamerican dry forest

Adrian Barrance — 2009-05-20

This book examines the concept of conservation through use', using the conservation of tree species diversity in Mesoamerican tropical dry forest in Honduras and Mexico as a case study. It discusses the need to develop conservation strategies based both on a botanical determination of those species most in need of conservation and an understanding of the role these trees play in local livelihoods. Based on a detailed analysis of smallholder farming systems in Honduras and coastal Oaxaca and a botanical survey of trees and shrubs in different land use systems in both study areas, the findings confirm the importance of involving the local population in the management and conservation of Mesoamerican tropical dry forest.
The book is directed at researchers in both the socioeconomic and botanical spheres, policy makers at both national and international level, and members of governmental and non-governmental organisations, institutions and projects active in the conservation of tropical dry forest and in rural development in the region.

‘Beyond Aid’ for sustainable development

Alan Hudson — 2009-04-30

While the prospects for developing countries are shaped by a wide range of domestic issues, such as politics, others have important cross border dimensions. These go beyond aid to include trade, migration, investment, environmental issues, security and technology. It is these 'Beyond Aid' issues, rather than aid alone, that will shape the development prospects for many countries. This Project Briefing, supported by OECD and DFID, examines Policy Coherence for Development -- approaches to ensure that donor policies on Beyond Aid issues support progress towards the Millennium Development Goals.

Beyond Basic Needs: Programming for marginalised and vulnerable groups - The Australian Partnerships with African Communities (APAC) Programme

Fiona Samuels — 2009-04-02

This Project Briefing focuses on aspects of service delivery that go beyond the provision of basic services. It explores the ways in which APAC partners in Kenya, South Africa, Uganda and Zambia have, increasingly, recognised the need to address issues of vulnerability and exclusion to achieve lasting changes. The Australian Partnerships with African Communities (APAC) programme is a five-year cooperation agreement (2004-2009) between the Australian Agency for International Development (AusAID) and Australian NGOs to address emerging development challenges in Southern and Eastern Africa using community-based approaches.

On the basis of evidence from this region, the Project Briefing argues that development programmes work best when they reflect local realities and respond to both rights violations and lack of access to services. Evidence suggests that basic and 'beyond basic' needs programming should be planned together from intervention design, with a clear step-by-step process to move from one to the other. Finally, a rights-based approach to programming is crucial in the achievement of long term and sustainable empowerment of marginalised groups.

Value chain analysis and poverty reduction at scale

Jonathan Mitchell — 2009-03-13

This Briefing Paper looks at how markets can be made to work for the poor, building on experience in the tourism sector to unblock access to profitable market opportunities. The need - and opportunity - to harness markets for poverty reduction is evident in tourism. Developing countries are littered with well-intentioned community-based tourism projects, delivering small benefits to few people. Developed in isolation from commercial distribution channels, they lack the client volumes needed for commercial sustainability. In contrast, Ministries of Tourism and mainstream businesses often see increased arrival numbers as the barometer of success.

Biofuels: Could the South benefit?

Henri Leturque — 2009-03-05

This Briefing Paper finds that the production of biofuels to meet Northern targets will mean small increases in poverty and in prices for some food staples, but it also presents opportunities for domestic biofuels industries in the South. It argues for the promotion of socio-environmental standards to protect the rights of the poor to land and freedom from exploitation.

The Paper examines claims that increased production of biofuels contributed to the food price crisis of 2008. It finds that, while this is partly true, it is only part of the picture. The opportunities presented by biofuels for poor farmers in the south, in terms of income and employment, have been, to some extent, overlooked. The paper calls for aid and trade policies to be adapted to stimulate these opportunities and protect the environment for poor farmers and rural workers. It recommends that northern countries should reduce barriers to biofuel imports, regardless of the country of origin. Donors should support the development of Southern biofuel industries though funding for a comprehensive range of institutional, commercial and technical developments. Finally, the implementation of socio-environmental standards across the sector should be promoted though inclusive processes, such as decentralised roundtables, to ensure the ownership of key stakeholders.

Growth without development: Looking beyond inequality

Milo Vandemoortele — 2009-02-09

This Briefing Paper argues for a stronger focus on the measurement of polarisation, rather than inequality, to get a more nuanced picture of poverty, and generate effective policies for poverty reduction. It suggests that polarisation may explain why economic growth does not always translate into lasting human development. Inequality is often blamed for the poor links between economic growth and human development, but data show that links between economic growth, inequality and human development are less robust than often assumed.

Unlike the measurement of inequality, polarisation measures focus on the clustering of members of a society at more than one income level - referred to as poles - capturing convergence around these income levels.

The measurement of polarisation provides a distinct and complementary insight into the link between growth and human development, capturing the distributional aspects missed by traditional inequality measures. It leads, therefore, to different policy recommendations.

People in planning in Malawi: Lessons from the APAC Programme in Eastern and Southern Africa

Fiona Samuels — 2009-01-30

This Project Briefing examines the key lessons, successes and innovations of the Australian Partnerships with African Communities (APAC) programme to address emerging development challenges in Eastern and Southern Africa, using community-based approaches. Focusing on the role of people in planning (PiP) processes, it provides a short overview of the rationale for decentralisation and how this works in practice in Malawi, looking at the work of three NGOs. It describes key aspects of the PiP models used by the NGOs, how these have facilitated people's involvement and how they can be sustained and replicated. It concludes with three overarching findings.

First, a multi-owned, transparent, responsive institutional set-up is the most effective approach to ensure that communities and individuals are involved in planning processes. Second, programme planning should go beyond pragmatism to build social and political leverage. Third, raising the voice and participation of marginalised groups in planning and development is only possible if this is an explicit part of the programming strategy.

The contribution of services to development: The role of regulation and trade liberalisation

Massimiliano Cali — 2008-12-18

The service sector makes a key contribution to gross domestic product (GDP) and employment in most developing countries. It also provides essential inputs and public services for the economy. International trade in services can improve economic performance and provide a range of traditional and new export opportunities. With funding from the UK Department for International Development (DFID), the Overseas Development Institute,, has examined the role of regulation and trade liberalisation in services and development. The research consisted of literature reviews on six service sectors and more specific case studies of health services, financial services and tourism.

Legal Timber: Verification and Governance in the Forest Sector

David Brown — 2008-12-10

Legal Timber investigates a topical issue in international forest policy: how to verify the legality of traded timber in ways that will satisfy both the commercial interests of producer states and the social and environmental concerns of civil society and consumers.

This seemingly straightforward and technical matter proves, on investigation, to be complex and political. It addresses a critical interface in international relations where the sovereign rights of producer states are set against the role of forests as

important public goods. It relates to a topic — illegal logging — that has been at the forefront of a movement in which private actors are playing increasingly important roles in forest sector reform. Legal Timber presents the findings of the VERIFOR project, an applied research collaboration involving partners in Europe, Africa, Latin America and Asia.

Drawing on case studies from five continents, the book investigates the ways in which questions of forest management illuminate much wider processes of governance reform.

This book will be of interest to all those working on forest governance and the management of extractive resources, trade certification and labelling, environmental activism, and participatory development.

Achieving economic and social rights: The challenge of assessing compliance

Edward Anderson — 2008-12-08

Economic, social and cultural rights were formally recognized within international law in 1966, enshrined in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). How can government compliance with obligations under the ICESCR be assessed? How in practice can governments be held accountable for such obligations? There are legal challenges in answering these questions. However, there are also empirical challenges: often, evidence is simply not sufficient to monitor government actions effectively. Or not enough attention is paid to the kind of rigorous evidence that is needed to ensure that ES can be implemented in any meaningful way.

HIV, food and drugs: Livelihoods, nutrition and Anti-retroviral Therapy (ART) in Kenya and Zambia

Fiona Samuels — 2008-12-01

This Briefing Paper presents the key findings of a study conducted by ODI and the Population Council in Mombasa and Lusaka, on how people on ART can be supported to make the transition from supplementary feeding to sustainable, long-term livelihood security.

A typology for Public Works Programming

Anna McCord — 2008-12-01

This paper sets out the different interpretations of 'Public Works' and the implications of this diversity for social protection programming. It outlines the wide range of programmes currently implemented under the broad descriptor 'Public Works'. 'Public Works Programmes (PWPs)' have been interpreted and applied in different ways, without making adequate distinction between different forms, resulting in errors in programme design and implementation. This paper provides a framework for a more systematic and insightful engagement with PWPs, which links the different forms of PWP to likely social protection outcomes in differing labour market contexts.

Digging holes and filling them in again? How far do public works enhance livelihoods?

Anna McCord — 2008-11-14

Public works are of two broad kinds: short-term measures respond to a one-off shock (such as drought or flooding); longer-term measures respond to persistent cyclical events such as shortage of work opportunities in e.g. the agricultural off-season. In some cases, short term measures are used in response to persistent events in the hope that even brief employment may be sufficient to enable 'graduation' from poverty. It has been argued that PWPs, whether short- or longer-term, can impact on livelihoods promotion through the wage transfer itself, the assets created , and also the skills development or work experience impact of PWP participation. Data are too limited to permit firm conclusions, but, drawing on experience with short-term measures in southern Africa and with longer-term measures in India, this paper sets out the issues and draws tentative conclusions.

Community Area Based Development Approach (CABDA) Programme: An alternative way to address the current African food crisis?

Chris Wardle — 2008-11-14

Much of African smallholder farming faces weak service delivery and input supply, and a diminishing resource base, particularly in terms of soil and water conditions. Conventional interventions, whether through the state or markets, have had little success in improving these conditions. This paper describes an NGO programme - the Community Area-Based Approach (CABDA) - initiated 15 years ago and piloted in Ethiopia, Uganda and Malawi, which offers an alternative approach.

Can project-funded investments in rural development be scaled up? Lessons from the Millennium Villages Project

Kent Buse — 2008-11-14

Integrated village-based development projects are experiencing a renaissance in Africa and elsewhere. This has coincided with the apparent inability of many countries to make much progress on the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The Millennium Villages Project (MVP), developed by a team of scientists at The Earth Institute, headed by Jeffrey Sachs, is among the most high profile of these village-based projects. It supports an integrated package of proven interventions in health, agriculture and other sectors to lift inhabitants above the poverty threshold. This paper draws on a recent review of the MVP to ask what is needed if the numerous current village-level efforts to improve livelihoods are to have better prospects of being sustained and implemented on a wider scale.

Opportunity and exploitation in urban labour markets

Ursula Grant — 2008-11-07

Urbanisation is taking place on a massive scale, and around 60% of the world's people are expected to be living in cities by 2030. Growing urban centres are increasingly viewed as 'engines of growth' - a welcome recognition of their role in national development. But better economic opportunity does not always mean better work, and high rates of economic growth do not always result in urban poverty reduction. Rising urban inequality is a major concern, with the urban poor vulnerable to national growth downturns, and affected disproportionately by macro-economic reforms. Most of them spend their lives in insecure, poorly paid jobs. This Briefing Paper examines the benefits and constraints of urbanisation from the labour market perspective, and offers a series of policy 'next steps' for municipal governments, including pro-poor urbanisation, backed by labour intensive growth, labour protection, flexible land use regulation and investments in basic services.

Sustaining and scaling up Millennium Villages: Beyond rural investments

Kent Buse — 2008-10-31

The Millennium Villages Project (MVP), brainchild of The Earth Institute headed by Jeffrey Sachs, aims to demonstrate that meeting the MDGs is possible. The project supports an integrated package of proven interventions in African villages to lift inhabitants above the poverty threshold, at a cost of $120 per capita per year for five years. The MVP experiment concentrates resources at the community level, prioritising these investments, at least initially, over complementary ones in rural-urban linkages (such as infrastructure and market access) and institutional reforms. This Project Briefing reviews the potential for the MVP approach to be scaled up and is based on case studies from Ethiopia, Ghana, Malawi and Uganda, focusing on agriculture and health, with support from the Open Society Institute, a major sponsor of the MVP. The findings confirm the numerous successes of the approach, and calls for plans to scale up rural investments on the basis of ongoing dialogue and analysis, involving a watchful civil society, in the wider political and institutional environment. It includes clear recommendations for next steps for the MVP itself, for governments, and for donors.

Towards 'smart' subsidies in agriculture? Lessons in recent experience in Malawi

Andrew Doward — 2008-10-15

The recent spike in international food and fertilizer prices has underlined the vulnerability of poor urban and rural households in many developing countries, especially in Africa. The combination of factors that resulted in this spike has renewed policymakers' focus on the need to increase staple food crop productivity. While the pros and cons of input subsidies have been hotly debated over the past decade, input subsidies are being introduced (or re-introduced) in several countries as a means to shore up food security in the short-term while also implementing longer-term investments to raise productivity. With fertilizer prices likely to remain high in the short to medium term, such subsidies will inevitably imply a high budgetary burden. The challenge is to design so-called smart input subsidy programmes that have a significant impact on the availability of food in the short run while stimulating growth and rural development and increasing (or at least not suppressing) effective demand for and commercial distribution of inputs in the long run. Beginning in 2005/6, after almost a decade of experience with smaller-scale subsidy programmes, Malawi introduced a large-scale input subsidy programme using vouchers. The purpose of this brief is to review Malawi's experience in order to identify the challenges facing smart subsidy programmes if they are to be sustainable and cost effective in delivering on their goals.

Support for migrant workers: The missing link in India's development

Priya Deshingkar — 2008-10-15

India has around 100 million circular migrant workers, placing its experience almost on a par with China's. Yet migration in India faces an almost total absence of forward-thinking policies. Rejecting policies to 'keep them in rural areas' as unrealistic, this paper identifies the kinds of migrant support that are needed if migrants are to continue adding to economic growth as they currently do, but at lower personal cost than at present.

Achieving the MDGs: the fundamentals

Andrew Shepherd — 2008-09-16

This paper outlines the fundamental issues that will determine whether or not the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) can be achieved. The paper argues that such issues as gender inequity, the situation of fragile states, the humanitarian-development divide, and economic growth may not be present in every MDG, but will influence progress on every one of the goals. The lack of progress on the MDG targets for sanitation and maternal mortality, for example, may be rooted in gender discrimination and policy failings that are not fully addressed by the MDGs themselves. The Paper calls on all actors to work with, rather than against, the grain of southern realities, in efforts to achieve the MDGs.

Extreme poverty in Bangladesh: Protecting and promoting rural livelihoods

Rebecca Holmes — 2008-09-12

This paper examines evidence on the links between social protection and agricultural growth in Bangladesh by synthesising existing impact evaluations from four programmes in the country. This analysis is carried out against a framework of protection, prevention, promotion and voice. Elements of protection enable households to meet their basic needs and include cash and in-kind transfers. It can reduce seasonal hunger, known as monga in Bangladesh. Prevention aims to break vicious cycles that trap households during shocks and stresses - preventing, for example, sales of productive assets following a drought or flood, or to pay for major family events. Such negative coping strategies can undermine future productivity and livelihood. Promotion, through cash transfers that can be invested in production, or transferring productive assets, can boost incomes and improve livelihoods. More widely, giving people a greater voice can give them access to institutions (such as markets) and information from which they were previously excluded.

Gender and the MDGs: A gender lens is vital for pro-poor results

Nicola Jones — 2008-09-11

Gender inequality causes and perpetuates poverty and vulnerability. But greater gender equality can help to reduce the root causes of poverty and vulnerability and contribute to sustainable pro-poor growth.

Given that the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) address key development challenges, one would expect a gender focus throughout the Goals. The fact is that experiences of poverty differ according to sex, age, ethnicity and location. However, gender is only explicit in MDGs 3 and 5. MDG3 measures gender parity in education; the share of women in wage employment; and the proportion of seats held by women in national legislatures. MDG5 focuses on maternal mortality and, since 2005, on universal access to reproductive health.

This explicit inclusion in just two MDGs is too narrow, and sidelines other gender-specific risks and vulnerabilities, roles and responsibilities, and power relations. It is unlikely to lead to gender equality and the empowerment of girls and women, or tackle the development challenges that must be overcome for sustainable poverty reduction.

These limitations are compounded by the gender-blindness of other MDG indicators, and the fact that the gender dynamics that cut across the goals are relatively invisible in policy dialogues.

This Briefing Paper discusses how gender relations underpin four clusters of Goals: those on poverty and sustainable development; service access; care and care-giving; and voice and agency. It looks at ways to promote an interlinked gender-sensitive approach to the MDG achievement.

The WTO Doha round impasse: Implications for Africa

Mareike Meyn — 2008-09-09

This Briefing Paper discusses the implications of the stalled Doha trade talks for African countries, reviewing the reasons for the collapse of the talks, what was on the table, and the lack of a single African vision of what a good deal would look like.

Assessing international democracy assistance: Key lessons and challenges

Lise Rakner — 2008-08-13

This Project Briefing summarises the key findings of a study on international democracy assistance by ODI and the Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI). It provides a broad overview of the democratisation processes that have swept across Africa, Asia, and Latin America since the 1980s, and highlights some of the main lessons and implications for international democracy assistance to inform future donor practice. It finds that the central challenge for international democracy assistance is how to support 'hybrid' regimes. The relationship between democratisation and 'good governance' can be complex, with the two at times pulling in opposite directions. The Project Briefing says that donors need to recognise the tensions between long-term processes of democracy and the need for quick results.

Aid effectiveness after Accra

David Booth — 2008-07-22

This briefing paper examines aid effectiveness and the impact of the Paris Principles in the run-up to the Third High Level Forum, in Accra in September 2008. Drawing on research commissioned by ABIA, it concludes that political change in aid recipient countries is more important than anyone is admitting and that donor alignment efforts are compromised by a damaging mix of risk-avoidance and political correctness. It argues that both donors and country authorities should assume greater responsibility for their own incentive structures.

Rising food prices: Cause for concern

Steve Wiggins — 2008-07-02

The current spike in food prices needs prompt reaction through various forms of social protection to avert hunger. Prices are soon likely to fall somewhat, but not to their previous levels. Higher prices mean problems for three groups: poor households struggling to cope with higher costs of food; governments of low income food-importing countries facing higher import bills and higher energy prices; and agencies such as the World Food Programme (WFP) that use food aid to combat food emergencies.

How effective is European Commission aid on the ground?

Alina Rocha Menocal — 2008-06-19

This Project Briefing discusses the findings of ODI research on the impact of EC aid on the ground in three very different countries: Cambodia, Mozambique, and Peru. It finds that the quality of EC aid seems to be improving in important respects. Positive aspects include improved policy documents, changes in aid modalities, delegation of decision-making power to offices in partner countries, and more efforts in the political dimension of cooperation, such as political and policy dialogue. However, the evidence from the country cases also suggests that progress remains slow, pointing to persistent challenges that limit the effectiveness of EC aid.

What happens after trade agreements?

Shiela Page — 2008-06-13

Evidence from Latin America suggests that introducing complementary policies, both directly and indirectly related to trade, may make the crucial difference in generating development benefits for the poor.

Social protection for low capacity households in Zambia

Rebecca Holmes — 2008-05-02

Social protection is seen as a central pillar of growth in Zambia's National Development Plan, but its implementation remains a challenge. Enabling households to graduate from social protection support means building their assets and increasing their resilience to shocks and stresses. Existing strategies are hampered by lack of knowledge on the numbers and needs of poor households. This Project Briefing proposes a framework of protection, prevention and promotion as a tool to contribute to the graduation of low-capacity households from high vulnerability and poverty.

Accra 2008: The bumpy road to aid effectiveness in agriculture

Lídia Cabral — 2008-04-06

The 2005 Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness will be reviewed at the Third High-Level Forum on Aid Effectiveness in Accra in September 2008. The Paris Declaration establishes operating principles for donors and recipient governments to improve the effectiveness of aid. These include government leadership of the development process, a focus on policy results, greater alignment by donors with national policies and management systems, harmonisation between donors with division of labour, and mutual accountability for development results. These principles are broadly sound for guiding development cooperation with national governments. However, they do not help in addressing the challenges arising in certain areas of assistance. In agriculture, the overwhelmingly private nature of agricultural activities, the roles of non-governmental service providers, the significance of context and the cross-sectoral dimension of policy challenges are some of the reasons why development cooperation in that sector struggles to comply with the Paris principles. The paper sets out areas requiring focused attention in the run-up to Accra 2008.

Agricultural advisory services and the market

Ian Christoplos — 2008-04-05

This paper presents findings of a review of over thirty case studies of field level experience in promoting market orientation in agricultural advisory services. This study was carried out by the Neuchatel Initiative, an informal network that has been working with advisory service policy reform for the past twelve years. Advisory services are starting to respond more effectively to the needs of farmers and other value chain actors as they adapt to market demands. Despite significant progress in analysing and understanding how to respond to markets, sustainable enhancement of the capacities of the rural poor to benefit from markets will require a more focused and consistent approach. It is particularly important to critically monitor the outcomes of current pilot efforts in providing quality services and in teaching different rural clients.

Duty-free, quota-free access: What is it worth?

Christopher Stevens — 2008-03-14

The European Union (EU) and members of the African, Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) group have been negotiating Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs) for the past five years. At the end of 2007, 35 ACP states signed interim EPAs under which the EU will remove all tariffs and quotas on its ACP imports, an initiative known as duty-free and quota-free access (DFQF). This Project Briefing asks what would fully implemented DFQF be worth to ACP members and what might it mean for Europe's other import suppliers, consumers and domestic producers of competing goods? It examines only one aspect of EPAs, which are controversial.

Untangling links between trade, poverty and gender

Nicola Jones — 2008-03-06

This paper evaluates the gender dimensions of poverty and trade in Latin America. In particular, it notes that changes in employment, prices and social expenditures are three pathways linking trade and gender. Also, trade liberalisation may have positive or negative impacts, but there are risks for women. Therefore it argues that trade reforms must be complemented by social and labour policies to ensure that women can take full advantage of the new economic environment.

Common funds for sector support

Zainab Kizilbash Agha — 2008-02-07

In the continuing effort to provide more effective aid, donors have committed themselves to making greater use of country systems and harmonising the way aid is delivered. Donor agencies that agreed to the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness in 2005 are free to choose the modality with which they deliver aid to the government sector, as long as they move progressively towards modalities that use country systems in full. Budget support and debt relief are the modalities that best meet these criteria.

The political economy of pro poor growth: The challenge of making growth pro-poor

Kate Bird — 2008-01-31

This paper focuses on the political economy challenges to making growth policies pro-poor. It explores: the importance of governance, institutions, the developmental state and corruption in setting the conditions within which pro-poor growth becomes possible (or not); the role of power sharing and downwards accountability in pro-poor policy formulation and implementation; key challenges in policy formation and implementation; and implications for donor and government action.

Supporting pro-poor growth processes: Implications for donors: Policies and programmes to strengthen the productive capacities of poor people

Eva Ludi — 2008-01-30

This briefing paper discusses policies and programmes to strengthen the productive capacities of poor people, arguing that reducing poverty depends, to a large extent, on reducing rural poverty. Evidence suggests that increases in agricultural productivity are closely related to poverty reduction. However, whether or not poor rural people can access markets and services to identify and grasp opportunities greatly depends on the availability and quality of infrastructure and on the institutional environment.

Market-Oriented Agricultural Infrastructure: Appraisal of Public-Private Partnerships

Michael Warner — 2008-01-30

This Project Brief summarises the findings of an ODI and FAO joint project on public-private partnership models to promote private investment in agricultural infrastructure. In 2007, FAO (UN Food and Agriculture Organization) commissioned ODI to assist in analysing a range of PPP models and model-variants that promote market-oriented agricultural development. The models are informed by case studies of market-orientated infrastructure in the following categories: (1) farm to market roads; (2) water for irrigation; (3) wholesale markets and trading centres; (4) agro-processing facilities; and (5) information and communications technology.

Cash transfers in Sierra Leone: Are they appropriate, affordable or feasible?

Rebecca Holmes — 2008-01-29

This Project Briefing discusses whether cash transfers are an appropriate, feasible and affordable tool to assist Sierra Leone's post-conflict transition and contribute to reducing poverty levels.

The Indian National Rural Employment Guarantee Act: Will it reduce poverty and boost the economy?

Disa Sjoblom — 2008-01-28

This paper reviews early experience with a major new public works programme in India, the National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (NREGA) passed by the Indian parliament in September 2005. The act built on a previous initiative in one Indian state ‚Äî the Maharashtra Rural Employment Guarantee Programme1 ‚Äî to ensure that a minimum amount of paid work would be available to those in rural areas who need it. As an act of parliament, it confers statutory rights ‚Äî unlike a project, which could be prone to short-term changes. In specified districts (now more than half of the districts in the country), NREGA offers up to 100 days of employment per rural household per year on public works, at the prevailing minimum unskilled wage rate. The aim of the act is to boost the rural economy and enhance overall economic growth.

Oil Field Services Expenditure and Economic Growth: Prospects for Developing Countries

Michael Warner — 2008-01-21

Governments in oil-exporting developing countries find the task of transforming oil revenues into productive and sustainable economic growth a significant challenge. At the same time, the other key contributor of this sector to the domestic economy - the market for oil and gas field services expenditure - continues to expand. This paper provides an overview of the procurement market in oil and gas exploration and production (E&P), and asks if sufficient effort is being made to realise its potential to grow the domestic economies of developing countries.

A conceptual framework for understanding the role of cash transfers in social protection

Rachel Slater — 2008-01-10

Defines a conceptual framework for cash transfers in social protection, that focuses on three spheres: institutions, politics and governance; capacity and implementation; and local economic and social impacts. Key points: Cash transfers have the potential to promote and protect livelihoods in both development and humanitarian relief settings; a number of issues are common to all three spheres, including political context and acceptability, targeting and instrument choice, and beneficiaries’ voice.

Drivers of cocoa production growth in Ghana

Marcella Vigneri — 2007-12-22

This paper looks at some of the reasons behind a major cocoa production boom in Ghana between 2001 and 2003. It finds that this episode of growth is unlikely to be easy to replicate without knock-on costs to the functioning and long-term sustainability of the sector.

Ghana and the cocoa marketing dilemma: What has liberalisation without price competition achieved?

Marcella Vigneri — 2007-12-20

This Project Briefing investigates how the system of liberalisation without price competition in Ghana has affected farmers' production and asks whether it has provided the correct incentives to sustain cocoa-dependent livelihoods of smallholders.

Voice for Accountability: Citizens, the state and realistic governance

Marta Foresti — 2007-12-10

This briefing paper presents emerging findings and policy recommendations from a recent multi-donor evaluation of voice and accountability policies and interventions. It Furthermore, donors' interventions are not sufficiently tailored to the local political and socio-economic context.

Use of subsidies by Development Finance Institutions in the infrastructure sector

Dirk Willem te Velde — 2007-12-02

DFIs have a general mandate to provide finance to the private sector for investments that promote development. Infrastructure fits within this remit. The raison d'etre of DFIs is to engage where the market fails to invest sufficiently. DFIs engage particularly in countries with restricted access to domestic and foreign capital markets. They specialise in loans with longer maturities and other financial products which are appropriate for financing long term infrastructure projects. DFIs aim to be catalysts, helping companies implement investment plans. They provide risk mitigation that enables investors to proceed with plans they might otherwise abandon. Further, because of the unique characteristics of DFIs they have a comparative advantage in providing finance that is related to the design and implementation of reforms and capacitybuilding programmes adopted by governments.

Regional inequality and secondary education in Ghana

Kate Higgins — 2007-11-30

This paper is part of a collection of five policy briefs was commissioned by the World Bank for the 2009 World Development Report Reshaping Economic Geography. This brief explores the education dimensions of spatial inequality in Ghana and examines the model secondary schools policy, which was recently adopted by the Government of Ghana (GoG) in an attempt to address this disparity.

All five policy briefs seek to explore how a range of policy instruments might influence spatial differentiation within countries. The policy briefs explore different policy instruments and issues, but all have three common objectives. First, to explore the spatial disparity that motivated the policy response; second, to outline the policy instrument; and third, to examine the impact of the policy.

Regional inequality and primary education in Northern Uganda

Kate Higgins — 2007-11-30

This paper is part of a collection of five policy briefs was commissioned by the World Bank for the 2009 World Development Report Reshaping Economic Geography. This brief examines Universal Primary Education in Uganda and its impact on reducing regional inequality in education access, quality and performance. This brief finds that while the universalistic approach to addressing regional disparities in education is effective and has improved primary education access and quality in the lagging northern region of Uganda, it does not have an equalising effect. Additional resources are required to reduce regional disparities, particularly in relation to primary education quality and performance.

Voluntary' migration in the Lao People's Democratic Republic (PDR)

Kate Bird — 2007-11-30

Through relocation policies, the Government of Lao PDR seeks to transform what it considers to be a traditional, rural economy into a modernised market-oriented system by eradicating shifting cultivation, changing the way that land is allocated and by reaching communities. It intends for this to take place alongside providing improved access to roads, markets and government services and promoting new opportunities, including plantation based cash crop production ( Bechstedt et al. 2007). This policy brief focuses on these relocation policies and their apparent results.

Circular migration in India

Kate Bird — 2007-11-30

This paper is part of a collection of five policy briefs was commissioned by the World Bank for the 2009 World Development Report Reshaping Economic Geography. This brief explores circular migration in India and the policy response, and impact of this policy response, on the welfare of migrants and more broadly, on regional inequality.

Regional inequality and the Niger Delta

Kate Higgins — 2007-11-30

Poverty and inequality in Nigeria has strong regional concentrations, resulting in significant levels of regional disparity. The Niger Delta is a region that has been somewhat marginalised from Nigeria's national development, despite being the region that generates Nigeria's oil wealth. The GoN's policy response to this marginalisation and relative underdevelopment is the NDDC, which was established in 2000. The development of the Niger Delta since the NDDC was established shows that poverty reduction progress has been slow, particularly given the Niger Delta's substantial natural resource endowments and additional federal government resources. It is difficult to assess the effectiveness of the NDDC, however, and the extent to which it has ontributed, or failed to contribute, to poverty reduction in the Niger Delta. What is apparent, however, is that natural resource endowments do not necessary translate into welfare gains for communities. In addition, national level government political and financial commitment to address regional disparities may not be enough: it may be rejected because of the 'top down' nature of the approach and ineffective if reliant on institutionally weak state and local governments.

All five policy briefs in this series seek to explore how a range of policy instruments might influence spatial differentiation within countries. The policy briefs explore different policy instruments and issues, but all have three common objectives. First, to explore the spatial disparity that motivated the policy response; second, to outline the policy instrument; and third, to examine the impact of the policy.

AIDS and the private sector: The case of South Africa

Fiona Samuels — 2007-11-30

This Briefing Paper provides a snapshot of multinational corporations' programmes that focus on AIDS outside the workplace. It explores the 'business case' for the MNC response to the epidemic and highlights some of the debates about the role of businesses in a national response. While the Briefing Paper is focused on South Africa, it offers lessons that may be appropriate for businesses responding to AIDS in other countries.

Making agriculture work for the poor

Martin Prowse — 2007-10-31

This paper look at the links between poverty, agriculture and land, reporting on panel data analysis in five countries - Vietnam, Uganda, India, Nicaragua and Ethiopia. It suggests that three 'pillars' can help to make agriculture work for the rural poor - infrastructure, education and information.

Closing the deal: IMF reform in 2007

Lauren Phillips — 2007-10-18

This paper looks at IMF governance reform, finding that time is running short to finish a deal. In particular, it finds that differences remain amongst key players on the governance reform package; the window of opportunity is narrow and closing fast, and 2008 presents new challenges. It argues that the risk of economic downturn in OECD countries will reduce actors' incentive to undertake reforms.

Rural employment and migration: In search of decent work

Steve Wiggins — 2007-10-18

New thinking on rural employment is needed to create more and better rural jobs. Growth in agriculture is essential, and growth in the rural non-farm economy is especially important. Job prospects improve as education, skills, health and early nutrition levels rise. Rural-urban migration (whether temporary or permanent) opens new opportunities and also helps tighten rural labour markets. With rising productivity and wages, it becomes easier to push for better labour standards, to end to child labour and correct gender inequalities.

How can the analysis of power and process in policy-making improve health outcomes?

Kent Buse — 2007-10-15

This paper looks at health policy, asking what we know about the factors influencing the patterns and effectiveness of health policy change and how can we move the agenda forward in order to improve health outcomes. It finds that policy analysis can contribute to meeting health objectives by untangling the complex forces of power and process that underpin change.In addition, it argues that health policy analysis has not been adequately developed and applied in low and middle income countries and that building a critical mass of networked researchers and policy-makers provides the key to developing the field and improving its contribution to health outcomes.

Community-Based Worker Systems - a possible solution to more services, reaching many communities, and within budget

CBW partners in South Africa Lesotho Uganda Kenya — 2007-10-01

One of the major problems in Africa is that services provided by government often do not reach communities, especially rural communities (eg see Khanya, 2001). One way of addressing this is via community-based workers (CBWs) such as community animal health workers, homebased carers, peer educators etc. Lessons from Uganda, South Africa, Lesotho and Kenya suggest that these models can be applied at large scale and can have a major impact on livelihoods. These lessons are drawn from several sectors including natural resources. To scale up such approaches successfully requires rethinking service provision, and a major investment in the capacity of civil society. Methodologies for scaling up need to be developed including tandardisation of training and allowances, large-scale capacity- uilding of civil society to take forward such approaches, as well as coordination and management of potentially numerous CBWs in communities. Government will need to mainstream funding such approaches, seeing them as front-line service delivery and so a priority rather than the last to be funded. Resistance from some professionals needs to be addressed for this to succeed, with clarity that improved front line delivery will result in increased demand for value-added professional services.

Multilateral donors: stakeholder perceptions revealed

Simon Burall — 2007-09-30

This project briefing presents results from an ODI pilot project, undertaken in 2007, that aimed to identify the views of stakeholders in recipient countries about the performance

of key multilateral organisations, and their preferences for which organisations should disburse additional aid.

Key points:

The perceptions of 261 senior recipient country stakeholders about the performance of multilateral organisations are a challenge for donors.

Respondents and donors appear to use different sets of criteria to assess overall effectiveness.

Perceptions of governance and ownership appear to

affect recipient preferences about which multilateral organisation should disburse additional aid.

The end of Botswana beef exports to the European Union?

Mareike Meyn — 2007-09-10

Losing current preferences is most likely to stop Botswana's only agricultural export commodity to the European Union (EU) immediately. Botswana's beef exports would be treated less favourably by the EU than those of the world's most competitive beef producers. The EU could avoid this situation if it had the political will. However, time is running out. To avoid the disruption of exports Botswana needs to know by end September 2007 what will happen in January 2008.

Climate change, agricultural policy and poverty reduction - how much do we know?

Rachel Slater — 2007-09-02

Projections suggest that, by the end of the 21st century, climate change could have had substantial impact on agricultural production and thence on the scope for reducing poverty. This paper seeks to trace the likely impacts through changes in the quality of the physical asset base, access to assets, and impacts on grain production and on agricultural growth more generally. At moderate degrees of warming, impacts are likely to be negative in some regions, but positive in others, making it important to understand the possible implications for trade between the regions. The short term impacts of climate change, particularly changes in the frequency and severity of adverse weather events, remain uncertain, but their impacts on many developing countries are likely to be negative. There is likely to be time to make appropriate policy responses to some of the longer-term impacts.

Where the land is greener: experiences contributing to sustainable land management

Gudrun Schwilch — 2007-09-01

There are numerous positive experiences that contribute to sustainable land management - but this wealth of information is often not tapped, and commonly not even recognised. The World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies (WOCAT) is a network and a methodology with the aim of sharing this valuable knowledge to improve livelihoods and the environment. Forty-two promising case studies were recently documented and analysed in a global overview book entitled 'where the land is greener' (WOCAT 2007), from which a consolidated list of policy points were drawn. This paper highlights some of these conclusions and policy points.

Budget support to Ghana: A risk worth taking?

Tony Killick — 2007-07-20

This paper argues that donors have taken risks and made important contributions to Ghana by providing aid as budget support. In particular, budget support in Ghana has supported reforms in ways that other aid modalities would not have done. However, it has neither reduced risks nor maximised benefits. The paper argues that re-design is needed, with a focus on its effectiveness as a tool for budget financing, rather than for policy leverage.

Economic Partnership Agreements: What happens in 2008?

Christopher Stevens — 2007-06-20

The terms on which the EU and the Africa Caribbean and Pacific (ACP) states trade with each other are established in the Cotonou Agreement 2000, which specifies that a new regime must be agreed by end-2007, a date that coincides with the expiry of a World Trade Organization (WTO) waiver for the current regime. This Briefing Paper, which builds upon substantial ODI work, identifies the best way forward.

Incentivising Community Content: the Interface of Community Investment Programmes with Local Content Practices in the Oil and Gas Development Sector

Michael Warner — 2007-06-18

There is growing understanding among major oil and gas development companies that a timely community skills and supply-chain analysis is valuable to understanding how existing 'community investment' programmes, might interface with their broader initiatives to enhance 'local content' (ie. the capture of employment and procurement opportunities by nationals and nationally-based firms). Prospects of closer interface between these two currently disparate business activities provides a new avenue for competitive differentiation among oil companies. Successful 'community content' strategies are essentially about building local capability over the long-term, and ensuring that community-based skills and micro-enterprises, as well as small and medium sized firms who employ community members, are marketable in sectors outside the volatile and capital-intensive upstream energy industry. This paper is aimed at public and private sector decision-makers closely engaged in oil and gas development sector in developing countries, as well as the private sector development (PSD) and small and medium scale enterprise (SME) support units embedded within international development agencies. Illustrations are given from Nigeria (a low-income country) and Trinidad and Tobago (an upper-middle income country). The paper falls into three parts: the growing importance of local content in the oil and gas development sector; the challenges for company-driven community investment programmes; and the interface of community investment with local content.

Assessing how tourism revenues reach the poor

Caroline Ashley — 2007-06-15

This Briefing Paper summarises findings from recent analyses of tourism value chaines from a pro-poor perspective. It illustrates that diagnostic tools such as local economic mapping and value chain analysis can be usefully applied to service sectors, and to explicitly assist in identifying poverty-targeted interventions, not just value chain competitiveness. Findings from recent studies indicate that the share of destination level revenue accruing to the poor varies widely according to context, ranging from as low as 5% to over 25%.

The New Broker: Beyond Agreement. Brokering Partnerships for Development

Michael Warner — 2007-06-11

The New Broker: Beyond Agreement takes a light-hearted look at the mechanics of brokering strategic partnerships between private companies, government authorities and development assistance agencies. A sequel to The New Broker: Brokering Partnerships for International Development (2003, also by Michael Warner), the story centres around the topic of 'local content': the economic impact of a company on local employment, technology transfer, enterprises development and infrastructure. The book leads the reader through the trials and tribulations of negotiating a partnership agreement around a programme of involuntary community resettlement, caused by the construction of an oil refinery in West Africa. The Agreement succeeds in linking resettlement to the company's policies on 'local content' and 'community investment' (what in ODI we call 'community content'), to the plans and budgets of local government and development agencies, and to the available skills and competencies of communities and local enterprises.

Biofuels, Agriculture and Poverty Reduction

Leo Peskett — 2007-06-07

The development of biofuels has generated vigorous debate on economic and environmental grounds. Our attention here is on its potential impacts on poverty reduction. The potential is large, whether through employment, wider growth multipliers and energy price effects. But it is also fragile: it will be reduced where feedstock production tends to be large scale, or causes pressure on land access, and its success can be undermined by many of the same policy, regulatory or investment shortcomings as impede agriculture. Whilst some of the factors facilitating, and impacts of, biofuels can be tracked at global level, its distributional impacts are complex, and point to the need for country-by-country analysis of potential poverty impacts.

Food security in Southern Africa: changing the trend?

Steve Wiggins — 2007-06-06

Review of lessons learnt on recent responses to chronic and transitory hunger and vulnerability. The analysis of food shortages in southern Africa in recent years has prompted questions over how far they are chronic and how far generated by crises. Answers to these questions allow the respective roles of developmental, relief and social protection measures to be identified. Whilst much progress has been made, especially in the quality of information available, there remain difficulties in several areas, such as taking initiatives beyond the pilot scale, building national capacity to interpret and act on vulnerability assessments (in ways other than simply supplying more food) and in enhancing the consistency between donor and government policy.

The end of current EU preferences for Namibia: Economic and social impacts

Mareike Meyn — 2007-05-31

ODI research on Namibia indicates that the loss of current EU preferences is likely to have negative economic and social effects. Namibia's major agricultural exports to the EU would be put in a less favourable position than those of its major competitors, all of which are more advanced economies. The EU could avoid this situation if it has the political will.

Central Asia: Governance, geopolitics and development challenges

Verena Fritz — 2007-05-21

This Briefing Paper seeks to draw greater attention to Central Asia as a developing region. It analyses the governance situation, which poses a key obstacle to development. Focusing on the role of external actors it argues that European countries and the EU should play a greater role in supporting the region's development, and in helping to reduce the negative spill-overs from 'geopolitics' on governance and development.

Changing aid delivery and the environment

Neil Bird — 2007-03-20

This paper examines how environmental objectives are pursued by donors in a context where aid delivery mechanisms are changing, asking how donor support can best be delivered to meet environmental objectives.

Budget monitoring and policy influence

Paolo de Renzio — 2007-03-12

While budget analysis and advocacy activities have expanded dramatically in Africa, Asia, and Latin America over the past decade, no material has been systematically gathered on the impact of such work. Therefore, civil society groups interested in undertaking budget work have little access to the experiences of the pioneering organisations. This Briefing Paper summarises the findings of a study, led by the International Budget Project and the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex, which attempts to fill this gap by bringing together evidence from case studies of organisations in Brazil, Croatia, India, Mexico, South Africa, and Uganda that have been engaged in budget work for at least five years.

The role of the services sector in Botswana's diversification