ODI eLibrary

Food prices in Mali and Sudan

Steve Wiggins — 2025-12-27

From early 2020 prices of cereals, fuels and fertiliser on world prices began to rise, beginning a cycle that would peak in mid-2022, by which time many prices had doubled or more. At the time, much concern was expressed that increases in prices on world markets would transmit to domestic markets in the Global South, driving up local food prices, and causing distress to people on low incomes.

SPARC-IDRC carried out a study in 2023 to see what had happened to staple food prices in Mali and Sudan between 2019 (pre-pandemic) and mid-2022, with what consequences, and with what public responses. That research reported cereal prices in both countries had doubled or more since early 2020. Price rises were (very) largely a result of domestic drivers, above all poor harvests and, in Sudan, hyperinflation. Most people living on low incomes tried to economise by cutting out costly foods and trying to earn more by taking on more work. Public responses were inadequate to mitigate hardship.

This report extends the analysis in the two countries from 2023 to mid-2025, examining subsequent price changes and their drivers, effects on vulnerable people, and public responses.

Access to land and resilience for female Sundanese refugees in Chad

Camille Laville — 2025-12-24

In 2025, over a million Sudanese refugees, mostly women and children, live in eastern Chad, some for over 15 years. The Chad government and partners aim to support their autonomy by providing land access, but this is mainly through agreements with host communities with unclear conditions.

This study explores Sudanese refugee women’s land access in eastern Chad, analysing host community perceptions. It examines systemic barriers, women’s social characteristics, land access, and opportunities for improved coordination.

Data from 30 focus groups with over 300 people from refugee camps in February 2025, supplemented by literature reviews, national budget studies, and interviews with stakeholders, reveals:

- Chad and partners lack clear objectives for women’s land access, hindering their commitment.

- Refugees and hosts recognise that pregnant or single refugee women with young children or disabled dependents have less land access. Being young with close family support, especially adolescents, is seen as a key advantage. However, the commodification of land exacerbates gender inequalities by preventing refugee women without male guarantors from accessing land. This confusion between access and use of land also creates tension between communities, hindering peaceful coexistence and village development.

Policy implications include strengthening the integration of land tenure issues for host communities and refugees in national climate strategies. Attention should be paid to inequalities in access linked to household composition in national strategies for the East of Chad, raising awareness among local authorities, and establishing legal mechanisms to address gender-based barriers. Support for equitable access to seeds and agricultural tools adapted to gender and local realities is also crucial to avoid adverse local effects and supply disruptions. Prioritising areas where refugee camps encroach on host lands or are affected by land commodification in rehabilitated land donation programs is essential. A joint assessment of road and water infrastructure with host communities is needed to better target investments and reduce feelings of injustice.

This report is also available in French.

Supporting pastoralists through AfriScout Steward and Regen

Miguel Uribe — 2025-12-23

Pastoralism is an increasingly precarious livelihood in East Africa’s arid and semi-arid regions due to climate-related disasters, armed conflict, livestock diseases, macroeconomic shocks and growing populations. Consequently, there is a critical need for innovations that enhance pastoralists’ resilience and adaptability.

The AfriScout (AS) programme – devised and implemented by Global Communities – supports pastoralists through two intervention models: AfriScout Steward, a digital app implemented in Kenya that provides satellite and crowd-sourced information on rangeland conditions to inform grazing and migration decisions; and AfriScout Regen, which provides more intensive and localised grazing support at a community level in Ethiopia using a unique version of the adaptive multi-paddock (AMP) approach within defined regenerative grazing units (RGU).

Causal Design conducted an impact evaluation (IE) to understand the causal impacts of the two AS models (Causal Design, 2025). Primarily, the evaluation sought to identify the attributable outcomes of AS on pastoralist decision-making and subsequent impacts on rangeland conditions and herd conditions. This SPARC Technical Report summarises key findings and evidence-based recommendations for AS implementers and policy-makers.

Agro-pastoralists' adaptation to flooding and conflict in Gogrial East, Warrap State, South Sudan

Chol Peter Bak — 2025-12-18

Agro-pastoralist communities in South Sudan face increasing challenges from climate change and inter-ethnic conflict. In Gogrial East County, recurrent flooding and cattle raiding have disrupted livelihoods, exacerbated food insecurity, and strained social cohesion. Understanding how these communities adapt is critical for informing policy and humanitarian responses.

This report explores the perspectives of agro-pastoralist men and women in Toch East and Pathuon West Payams on the impacts of flooding and conflict. It documents the adaptations they employ in crop farming and livestock management.

Findings:

Flooding has increased in frequency and severity since 2018, leading to outbreaks of human and livestock diseases, reduced livestock production, destruction of farmland, and restricted access to markets and services.
Adaptations include migration to higher ground, herd splitting, preventative health care for livestock, and dyke construction.
Conflict, primarily over cattle and grazing land, has resulted in loss of life, livestock, and displacement.
Communities have formed armed youth groups and altered migration patterns.
Women and youth face disproportionate impacts, including increased workloads and exposure to violence.

Policy implications:

Improved early warning systems, tailored veterinary services, and climate-resilient infrastructure are needed to mitigate the impacts of floods.
Conflict reduction requires community capacity building, disarmament, and support for peacebuilding.
Humanitarian aid should address both food and non-food needs, with special attention to gender-based violence and trauma support for affected populations.

Gender transformative approaches in pastoral areas

Renee Bullock — 2025-12-18

Gender transformative approaches (GTAs) engage with, and address deeply embedded structural inequities. While pastoral systems share certain features with other livelihood systems, their unique characteristics require that GTAs are tailored or adapted to address particular perennial challenges. Tailoring GTAs is also essential to ensure that interventions do not unintentionally reproduce inequalities through exclusion.

We reviewed primary and secondary sources to understand GTAs in pastoral contexts in SPARC countries in Africa. The data sources provide insights on the primary foci of GTAs, target groups, impacts, mechanisms used to implement GTAs and, lastly, metrics used to assess impact. We used the “Reach, Benefit, Empower, Transform” (RBET) framework to evaluate project level data and identify projects that had explicit transformative aims and impacts. A total of 18 interventions were included, five of which targeted adolescents.

Status of mobility of livestock in Kenya and Ethiopia

Mohammed Yahya Said — 2025-12-18

Livestock in the Horn of Africa plays a critical role in economies, food security, employment, and income generation, particularly in pastoral areas. However, livestock mobility is increasingly being restricted, compromising livestock production. Maps and data on livestock routes, infrastructure and services are scattered.

In this report, we assess the status of livestock mobility, arterial routes, infrastructure and services in Ethiopia and Kenya. Livestock routes were mapped by government experts from each country on topographical maps and later digitised. Blocked routes were noted, and case studies selected for follow-up local-level qualitative research on causes of these blockages.

Status of mobility of livestock in Ethiopia

Mohammed Said — 2025-12-17

Livestock in Ethiopia plays a critical role in the economy, contributing to food security, employment, and income generation, particularly in pastoral areas. Livestock mobility is increasingly being restrained, however, compromising livestock production. In this brief, we assess the status of livestock routes and mobility in Ethiopia.

Livestock routes, supporting infrastructure and services were mapped by government experts from each region on topographical maps and later digitised. Blocked routes were noted, and case studies selected for follow-up local-level qualitative research on causes of these blockages.

Findings:
Mapping identified approximately 25,500 kilometres of arterial livestock routes across Ethiopia in both pastoral lowlands and mixed crop-livestock highlands.
Routes are concentrated in the Amhara, Oromia and Somali regions, with additional important corridors traversing Afar, Benishangul-Gumuz, and parts of the south-western regions.
- Six routes were no longer functional owing to land conversion for agriculture, urban expansion, invasive species, increasing conflict and infrastructural development.
- Facilities to support livestock mobility, such as veterinary posts, abattoirs, holding grounds and loading ramps are few, particularly in pastoral areas.

Policy implications:
- To preserve these vital corridors, government should set policies that recognise and legally protect livestock routes, and invest in veterinary services, abattoirs, holding grounds and loading ramps.

Juxtaposition of women’s economic empowerment and innovation

Milcah Asamba — 2025-12-17

In Somaliland, women’s work, often invisible, anchors herd management, processing, and local trade, yet is constrained by limited assets, restrictive social norms, and traditional household responsibilities such as caring for children, collecting water, cleaning, and preparing family meals.

Our objective was to explore the relationship between women’s empowerment and innovation. Specifically, we aimed to understand local definitions of women’s economic empowerment and innovation; to identify formal and informal innovations created or adopted by pastoralist women, especially during crises; to explore drivers of innovation and the strategies women use to advance economically; and to examine links between women-led innovation and empowerment at practical, institutional, and normative levels.

Across villages in Hargeisa and Wajaale town, Somaliland, SPARC researchers conducted six focus group discussions (FGDs) with pastoralist and agro-pastoralist households.

Findings:

When women pursue empowerment, they innovate around the obstacles that they face including societal and cultural barriers.
Innovations, such as locally formulated animal feed rations and local adaptations to accessing formal finance, within Somaliland's livestock raising and meat trading are shaped not only by technical or financial considerations but also by deeply-rooted cultural practices and policy environments.
Women in Somaliland’s livestock economy are already innovating and adapting quietly, persistently, and effectively. They face, however, competing priorities as they advance.
The community strongly values individuals, especially women, who contribute to the welfare of others. This emphasis on collective progress and support is rooted in culture: empowerment is often viewed as an added responsibility rather than a departure from tradition. Even empowered women rarely abandon their cultural or religious values: economic advancement is compatible with longstanding social norms.

Policy implications:

Sustainable change requires integrating new practices within local values, ensuring that empowerment efforts enhance rather than disrupt the fabric of community life. Success hinges on a delicate balance of community acceptance, external support, and continued investment in education and infrastructure, specifically digital communication networks, roads, and water systems.
To push out the frontiers of productivity and women’s empowerment, policy and public investments must match practice: finance that fits the needs of women’s enterprises; digital communication as well as meat/milk infrastructure that raises quality and reduces waste; and integration of gender transformative approaches into development programmes to support redistribution of household workloads and shift norms that limit women’s agency and contribution.

Adapting through bricolage

Carolina Pimentel Corrêa — 2025-12-17

This policy brief examines how farming and pastoralist communities in North-East Nigeria adapt to shocks through livelihood diversification and the creative use of local resources, skills and support systems. It highlights the roles of women and youth in driving resilience through informal and informal networks.

Key findings

Livelihood diversification or bricolage has become central to household resilience in Adamawa and Yobe, with livelihood income sources blending traditional and innovative practices that generate distinct socioeconomic value. Pastoralist and farming households increasingly combine two to three income sources. Women are expanding into home-based and value-adding enterprises (e.g. food processing and tailoring), while youth are leading the uptake of new technologies, transport, and informal services.
Informal networks remain the primary engine of adaptation, even where formal support exists. While NGO and government programmes have helped households scale activities, families continue to rely most on kinship ties, savings groups, markets, intergenerational learning, and peer mentorship to access knowledge, cash, and labour.
Structural barriers continue to limit equitable livelihoods opportunities. Women and youth pastoralists, especially in remote areas, face persistent additional constraints including limited capital, insecure land tenure, restrictive social norms, and geographic isolation.
Resilience is strongest when individual effort, social networks and formal support align, enabling households to bounce back faster and diversify livelihoods in the face of recurrent shocks.

Land use dynamics and farmer-herder conflicts

Hussein M Sulieman — 2025-12-17

This study investigates how land use and land cover (LULC) dynamics intersect with farmer– herder conflicts (FHCs) in two contrasting contexts within the Sahelian and Sudano-Sahelian belt: Gadarif State in Sudan and Nasarawa State in Nigeria.

The study aims to understand how spatial changes in land systems contribute to rising competition over resources and to identify practical strategies for mitigating conflict. Specifically, it seeks to answer the question: what options for mitigating farmer–herder conflicts in Sudan and Nigeria are revealed by the analysis of spatial land use dynamics?

Using a mixed-methods approach, combining multi-temporal satellite imagery, geospatial analysis, field surveys, focus group discussions (FGDs), and key informant interviews (KIIs), the research highlights how evolving land systems drive tensions, and offers evidence-based options for reducing conflict through integrated land management and governance reforms. It builds on and complements earlier detailed qualitative analysis in the two geographical contexts on the causes of FHCs, and emphasises the key role land conversion plays.

Targeting individuals or communities?

Sophie Turnbull — 2025-12-17

This policy brief summarises a two-year mixed-methods impact evaluation by Causal Design assessing how two models by AfriScout influence pastoralist decision-making, rangeland and herd conditions, and offers lessons for future programmes and policy.

Five lessons for supporting resilience in conflicts and recurring crises

Simon Levine — 2025-12-16

Few published studies assess resilience-building interventions several years after completion. Since resilience can be observed only over time, almost nothing is known about what really helps people cope with shocks. Retrospective learning is even more important in conflicts and recurrent crises, where life is less predictable, and where informal rules and informal power relations are more important. Without such learning, investments in resilience continue to be based on untested assumptions.

SPARC published five retrospective studies of projects in Ethiopia, Kenya and Chad, implemented by governments, United Nations (UN) organisations, international Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and local NGOs. They covered water development in the drylands, climate-smart agriculture, public works programming and market-based pastoral development.

Common lessons, apparent across these diverse studies, combine to explain why so many investments fall short of their expectations and show how better to support resilience in places threatened by crises.

This policy brief summarises the lessons from the five retrospective case studies, revisiting projects some three to five years after closure. All were selected because the implementing agencies indicated they were successful.

Key message:

Support for resilience should focus on evolutionary change, rather than on seeking transformational leaps. It is more important that changes are easy for people to adopt than that they lead to more ideal outcomes.
Approval of any intervention should depend on evidence that it is based on an understanding of the informal ways in which people currently live. The impacts of the intervention on informal institutions – and vice versa – must be planned for. Projects should first look to improve what already exists.
No single package of ideas can match the varied needs and priorities of everyone, even in a single community. It is better to provide a range of ideas that people can adopt and adapt.
The social processes by which change is likely to happen must be set out explicitly, including, for example, how attempts at elite capture of the benefits of any intervention will be mitigated. Theories of change need to be taken seriously. They should not be reduced to diagrams. Setting out the assumptions necessary for interventions to work makes it possible for those assumptions to be monitored – and for management to be adaptive.
There are no excuses for continuing to rely on the same mistaken assumptions in project and intervention design, simply because they are never checked. It should be standard practice to revisit a sample of interventions a few years after they have closed, to learn what really happened.

Deep-rooted causes of farmer–herder conflicts and impact on local food systems

Fiona Flintan — 2025-12-16

Farmer–herder conflicts in Africa have received heightened attention in recent years in the media, academic circles and policy-making contexts, with concerns over increasing and intensifying levels of conflict within and between groups. However, despite this attention, a systematic literature review of farmer–herder conflicts identified only a few primary in-depth studies. The review also found that both women and youth are underrepresented in these studies.
This brief seeks to understand the root causes and impacts of farmer–herder conflicts through a food production system and political economy lens. It emphasises relations and impacts on food systems while recognising the politicised nature of these conflicts.

The study combined focus group discussions with key informant interviews. We conducted research between 2023 and 2025. In Sudan, the study took place in Azaza Sogora Village, Gadarif State; in Nigeria in Jangargari Ward, Awe Local Government Area, Nasarawa State; and in Mali, in Sio Commune, Mopti Region. All were chosen for their known history of farmer–herder conflicts.

Findings include:
- These conflicts stem from complex interactions of socio-economic, environmental, and historical factors, exacerbated by resource competition.
- Despite being significantly impacted by these conflicts, women and youth are often underrepresented in discussions and conflict resolution processes despite their potential to contribute positively.
- Women face unique vulnerabilities while youth demonstrate a strong interest in non-violent conflict resolution.
- Inclusive governance that actively engages these groups is essential for fostering sustainable coexistence and addressing the underlying issues driving tensions between farmers and herders.

Policy implications include:
- The need for inclusive governance that actively involves women and youth in conflict resolution regarding farmer-herder tensions.
- Policymakers should recognise the unique roles and vulnerabilities of these groups, facilitating their participation in decision-making processes.
- Strategies must focus on equitable resource management, community engagement, and addressing the underlying socio-economic and environmental factors fueling conflicts.
- By fostering collaboration among stakeholders, policies can promote sustainable coexistence and significantly mitigate the impacts of farmer-herder conflicts.

The drylands of tomorrow

Samuel F Derbyshire — 2025-12-16

This report synthesises insights from six years of SPARC research to take stock of the key challenges and opportunities facing pastoralism and agriculture in the drylands today, and to reflect on where future investment and support might be most effective. Drawing on evidence from multiple countries and placing it in conversation with wider bodies of research, the report speaks to a broad audience across policy, practice and research. It is organised around three thematic sections – peace, prosperity and resilience – each chosen to reframe common narratives. Rather than focusing solely on conflict, poverty and climate vulnerability, the report shifts attention towards what works, what is changing, and what forms of support are proving most relevant in these evolving contexts.

Cinq leçons pour renforcer la résilience lors de conflits et de crises récurrentes

Simon Levine — 2025-12-16

SPARC a revisité plusieurs projets de renforcement de la résilience, apparemment réussis, dans différents pays, plusieurs années après leur achèvement. Cette note d’information montre ce que l’expérience peut nous apprendre sur la manière dont les projets transforment réellement la vie des populations et met en lumière les idées reçues qui se révèlent systématiquement illusoires, lorsque l’on prend la peine de vérifier.

Messages clés

Le soutien à la résilience devrait se concentrer sur le changement évolutif plutôt que sur la recherche de grandes avancées transformatrices. Il est plus important que les changements soient faciles à adopter par les populations que de conduire à des résultats ideaux.
L'approbation de toute intervention devrait dépendre de la capacité à démontrer qu'elle repose sur une compréhension des modes de vie informels actuels des populations. Les impacts de l'intervention sur les institutions informelles, et vice versa, doivent être anticipés. Les projets devraient d'abord chercher à améliorer ce qui existe déjà.
Aucun ensemble d'idées ne peut répondre à la fois aux besoins et aux priorités variés de chacun, même au sein d'une seule communauté. Il est préférable de proposer un éventail d'idées que les gens peuvent adopter et adapter.
Les processus sociaux susceptibles d'entraîner des changements doivent être clairement définis, y compris, par exemple, la manière dont les tentatives des élites de s'approprier les bénéfices d'une intervention seront atténuées. Les théories du changement doivent être prises au sérieux. Elles ne doivent pas être réduites à de simples schémas. Définir les hypothèses nécessaires au bon fonctionnement des interventions permet de contrôler ces hypothèses et d'adapter la gestion.
Il n'y a aucune excuse pour continuer à se fier aux mêmes hypothèses erronées dans la conception des projets et des interventions, simplement parce qu'elles ne sont jamais vérifiées. La pratique courante devrait consister à réexaminer un échantillon d'interventions quelques années après leur clôture, afin de savoir ce qui s'est réellement passé.

Causes profondes des conflits entre agriculteurs et éleveurs et impact sur les systèmes alimentaires locaux

Fiona Flintan — 2025-12-16

Cette note d’information résume les principales conclusions d’une étude menée dans trois pays, qui analyse les causes des conflits entre agriculteurs et éleveurs à travers le prisme des systèmes alimentaires. Elle prête une attention particulière au rôle des femmes et des jeunes dans ces conflits, ainsi qu’à l’impact qu’ils exercent sur eux. L’étude met en évidence des causes profondes liées à la marginalisation et au dénuement des pasteurs, ainsi qu’au manque de sécurité foncière et à la faiblesse de la gouvernance.

Messages clés

Causes profondes complexes : Les conflits entre agriculteurs et éleveurs sont profondément enracinés dans une interaction complexe de facteurs historiques, politiques et économiques. Ils sont alimentés par la diminution de la mobilité pastorale, les conflits liés à la concurrence pour l’accès à la terre et à l’eau, l’expansion agricole et le changement climatique. Ces facteurs exacerbent les tensions entre les communautés agricoles et pastorales.
Impact sur les moyens d’existence et la sécurité alimentaire : Les conflits continuels perturbent considérablement les moyens d’existence, entraînant une baisse de la productivité agricole, la perte d’accès à des ressources essentielles et une insécurité alimentaire accrue. Les groupes vulnérables, en particulier les jeunes et les femmes, sont les plus touchés par ces perturbations, car ils ont souvent peu de possibilités économiques autres que l’agriculture ou l’élevage traditionnels.
Dynamique entre les genres lors de conflits : Les femmes et les jeunes sont souvent marginalisés dans les processus de résolution des conflits. Alors que la littérature les présente souvent comme des victimes, leur potentiel en tant qu’artisans de la paix et participants actifs à la résolution des conflits est largement méconnu. Les rôles attribués à chaque genre influencent les expériences et les réactions face aux conflits, avec des impacts différents selon le genre et l’âge.
Polarisation et violence : les conflits entraînent une animosité accrue entre les groupes, ce qui se traduit par des flambées de violence répétées qui peuvent dégénérer. Cette hostilité est souvent transmise aux jeunes générations, perpétuant ainsi des cycles de méfiance et d’hostilité qui entravent les efforts de consolidation de la paix.
Nécessité d’une gouvernance et de solutions inclusives : Pour résoudre efficacement les conflits entre agriculteurs et éleveurs, il faut adopter des approches de gouvernance inclusives qui associent activement les femmes et les jeunes à la prise de décision. Il est impératif de traiter de manière collaborative la question de l’attribution des terres et de la gestion des ressources, afin de garantir une coexistence durable entre agriculteurs et éleveurs.

Women's evolving livelihoods and shifting gender norms in Western Bahr el Ghazal State, South Sudan

Claire Bedelian — 2025-12-16

This study examines women’s adaptive livelihood strategies, or bricolage, in Western Bahr el Ghazal State, South Sudan, amidst a context of protracted conflict, climate shocks, and economic instability. It explores how women creatively combine multiple small-scale income-generating activities to sustain their household’s well-being, while navigating shifting gender dynamics and challenging sociocultural norms. The research draws on 30 in-depth interviews with women and men, 14 key informant interviews, and seven focus group discussions conducted in March 2025 across rural and peri-urban communities in Wau and Jur River counties.

Aid at a crossroads

Alex Humphrey — 2025-12-16

Drylands are among the world’s most fragile and strategically important regions, yet aid systems continue to struggle to deliver lasting impact in these contexts. As humanitarian needs rise and funding shrinks, Aid at a Crossroads argues that the challenge is not simply to do more with less, but to fundamentally rethink how aid works in crisis-affected drylands.

Drawing on six years of SPARC research across East and West Africa and the Middle East, the report shows that conventional, technocratic models of aid - designed for stability and predictability - are poorly suited to environments defined by uncertainty, climate shocks and conflict. While emergency assistance saves lives, an over-reliance on short-term responses has too often failed to address the underlying drivers of vulnerability or to support the systems that people already use to cope with crisis.

Written primarily for implementers, policy-makers and funders, the report sets out practical ways to work differently: strengthening local capacities to navigate uncertainty, embedding flexibility into how aid is funded and delivered, and embracing the complexity of drylands contexts rather than trying to simplify them away. It is accompanied by a sister report,The drylands of tomorrow: pathways to prosperity, peace and resilience.

Key messages

Recognise and engage with complexity. Drylands are shaped by intersecting climate, conflict and social dynamics. Linear theories of change and standardised solutions routinely fall short. Aid actors must invest in deeper contextual understanding and adaptive approaches that reflect how people actually live and cope in these environments.
Reframe how success is measured. Short-term, easily quantifiable outputs miss what matters most for long-term resilience. Aid should value relational outcomes - such as trust, social capital and local ownership - and adopt accountability frameworks that allow results to emerge over time
Operate with flexibility at the core. Uncertainty is not the exception in the drylands; it is the norm. Funding, management and monitoring systems must enable programmes to adapt, shift priorities and respond to change in real time, trusting front-line teams to make context-driven decisions
Invest in informal social systems. Mutual aid groups, local markets and community networks are often the first and most reliable responders in crises. Supporting and strengthening these systems can deliver wider reach, better value for money and more sustainable impact—especially where formal aid access is limited.

L’aide à la croisée des chemins

Alex Humphrey — 2025-12-16

Les zones arides comptent parmi les régions les plus fragiles au monde et les plus importantes, sur le plan stratégique,  mais les systèmes d'aide continuent de se heurter à des difficultés pour obtenir des résultats durables dans ces contextes. Alors que les besoins humanitaires augmentent et que les financements diminuent, le rapport soutient que le défi ne consiste pas simplement à faire plus avec moins, mais à repenser fondamentalement le rôle de l'aide dans les zones arides affectées par des crises.

S'appuyant sur six années de recherche menée par SPARC en Afrique orientale et occidentale et au Moyen-Orient, le rapport montre que les modèles d'aide conventionnels et technocratiques – conçus pour garantir la stabilité et la prévisibilité – sont mal adaptés aux environnements caractérisés par l'incertitude, les chocs climatiques et les conflits. Si l'aide d'urgence permet de sauver des vies, le recours excessif à des interventions à court terme a trop souvent échoué à s'attaquer aux causes profondes de la vulnérabilité ou à soutenir les systèmes que les populations utilisent déjà pour faire face aux crises.

Principalement destiné aux responsables de la mise en œuvre, aux décideurs politiques et aux bailleurs de fonds, L'aide à la croisée des chemins présente des méthodes pratiques pour travailler différemment : renforcer les capacités locales pour faire face à l'incertitude, intégrer la flexibilité dans le financement et la mise en œuvre de l'aide, et accepter la complexité des contextes des zones arides plutôt que d'essayer de les simplifier à outrance. Il est accompagné d'un rapport complémentaire, Les terres arides de demain : les voies vers la prospérité, la paix et la résilience.

Messages clés

Reconnaître et prendre en compte la complexité. Les terres arides sont façonnées par l'intersection du climat, des conflits et des dynamiques sociales. Les théories linéaires du changement et les solutions standardisées s'avèrent généralement insuffisantes. Les acteurs de l'aide doivent s'investir davantage dans la compréhension du contexte et dans des approches adaptatives qui reflètent la manière dont les populations vivent et font face à ces environnements.
Redéfinir la manière dont le succès est mesuré. Les résultats à court terme, facilement quantifiables, passent à côté de ce qui importe le plus pour la résilience à long terme. L'aide doit accorder de l'importance aux résultats relationnels, tels que la confiance, le capital social et l'appropriation locale, et adopter des cadres de responsabilité qui permettent aux résultats d'émerger au fil du temps.
Agir avec souplesse au cœur des programmes d’aide. L'incertitude n'est pas l'exception dans les zones arides, c'est la norme. Les mécanismes de financement, de gestion et de suivi doivent permettre aux programmes de s'adapter, de modifier leurs priorités et de réagir aux changements en temps réel, en faisant confiance aux équipes de terrain pour prendre des décisions en fonction du contexte.
Investir dans les systèmes sociaux informels. Les groupes d'entraide, les marchés locaux et les réseaux communautaires sont souvent les premiers à intervenir en cas de crise et les plus fiables. Soutenir et renforcer ces systèmes peut permettre d'élargir la portée de l'aide, d'optimiser les ressources et d'obtenir un impact plus durable – notamment lorsque l'accès à l'aide formelle est limité.

Les terres arides de demain

Samuel F Derbyshire — 2025-12-16

Ce rapport synthétise les conclusions de six années de recherche menées par SPARC afin de dresser un bilan des principaux défis et opportunités auxquels sont confrontés aujourd'hui le pastoralisme et l'agriculture dans les zones arides, et de réfléchir aux domaines dans lesquels les futurs investissements et soutiens pourraient être les plus efficaces.

En se concentrant sur les thèmes clés de SPARC que sont la paix, la prospérité et la résilience, il explore à la fois les défis et les facteurs favorisant le progrès pour ceux qui vivent dans les zones arides. Plutôt que de fournir des conseils opérationnels, il vise à remettre en question les hypothèses courantes et à proposer des récits alternatifs et solides qui peuvent éclairer la réflexion stratégique. Il offre ainsi une image réaliste de ce qui fonctionne et de ce qui ne fonctionne pas, en exposant les implications pour les décideurs des secteurs privé et public – ceux qui élaborent les projets, les initiatives, les politiques et les investissements pour les années à venir.

Il est accompagné d'un rapport complémentaire intitulé, L'aide à la croisée des chemins : s'adapter aux réalités des zones arides.

Messages clés:

Dans les zones arides, la prospérité et la paix durables découlent généralement de changements progressifs, ancrés localement, et non d'une transformation à grande échelle. Les zones arides sont souvent considérées comme des lieux marginaux et improductifs nécessitant une transformation à grande échelle : un discours qui façonne une vague croissante de projets d'investissement de grande envergure, notamment des programmes d'irrigation commerciale, des installations d'énergie renouvelable et des initiatives d'extraction de ressources. Mais les recherches de SPARC montrent que ce ne sont généralement pas les programmes de grande ampleur, mais les investissements à petite échelle et itératifs dans ces moyens de subsistance quotidiens qui comptent le plus pour garantir la prospérité future.
À quoi ressemble un progrès réel, et qui le détermine ? Les programmes de développement définissent souvent les problèmes et mesurent les résultats à l'aide d'un langage générique et composite. Or, ces mesures générales ne reflètent souvent pas ce qui importe le plus aux populations locales – ce qui conduit les partenaires de développement externes à mal évaluer les défis et à compromettre l'efficacité des réponses apportées. Ce décalage persistera tant que les systèmes régissant l'aide et la responsabilité politique ne parviendront pas à mieux évaluer et répondre à ce que les populations locales considèrent comme un progrès.
Les pratiques collectives sont essentielles à la résilience et au développement dans les zones arides. L'aide extérieure devrait renforcer ces dynamiques existantes en les reconnaissant et en les soutenant davantage, et devrait encourager les solutions intégrées qui répondent simultanément à plusieurs défis interdépendants, en donnant la priorité aux investissements à long terme qui renforcent la collaboration entre différents types de gouvernance, formelle et informelle.
La flexibilité des moyens de subsistance et des connaissances locales doit être reconnue. Dans les zones arides, les moyens de subsistance s'adaptent constamment à l'évolution des conditions environnementales, sociales et économiques. Pourtant, les politiques s'appuient souvent sur des catégories rigides et des solutions uniformisées qui ne tiennent pas compte de la flexibilité et de l'interdépendance – une approche qui limite les possibilités d'innovation et de croissance et qui tente de stabiliser ou de revenir à une situation « normale ». Soutenir les interactions entre les éleveurs, les agriculteurs, les commerçants et autres acteurs, plutôt que de les traiter comme des secteurs distincts, peut renforcer les réseaux et les relations pratiques qui aident les populations à s'adapter.
Les discours négatifs ont un pouvoir qui perdure. Les défis auxquels sont confrontées les zones arides aujourd'hui ne sont pas le résultat d'une vulnérabilité inhérente. Les zones arides ne sont ni vides ni intrinsèquement vulnérables ; elles sont simplement défavorisées. Pour contribuer à un avenir meilleur, il faut changer la façon dont on parle et dont on comprend les zones arides. Cela implique notamment de reconnaître la valeur des stratégies locales déjà en place et de veiller à ce que les investissements reflètent les réalités et les priorités de ceux qui vivent dans ces régions.

Status of mobility of livestock in Kenya

Mohammed Said — 2025-12-15

Livestock in Kenya play a critical role in the economy, contributing to food security, employment, and income generation, particularly in pastoral areas. However, livestock mobility is increasingly being restrained, which compromises livestock production.

This brief assesses the status of livestock routes and mobility in Kenya. Livestock routes, supporting infrastructure and services were mapped by Kenya county government experts on topographical maps and later digitised. Blocked routes were noted, and case studies selected for follow up local-level qualitative research on causes of these blockages.

Findings:
- Mapping identified approximately 31,597 kilometres of livestock routes that form the arteries of movement across 47 counties in Kenya in both pastoral lowlands and mixed crop-livestock highlands. Routes are concentrated in the arid and semi-arid lands. More than 76 routes were no longer functional owing to land conversion for agriculture, urban expansion, invasive species, increasing conflict and infrastructure development.
- Facilities to support livestock mobility, such as veterinary posts, abattoirs, holding grounds and loading ramps, are scant, particularly in pastoral areas.

Policy implications:
- To preserve these vital corridors, government needs to set policies to recognize and legally protect livestock routes, and invest in veterinary services, abattoirs, holding grounds and loading ramps.

Influencing collective land tenure indicators

Fiona Flintan — 2025-12-15

This technical report examines how collective pastoral land tenure operates in practice and how perceived tenure security can be better measured in communal land systems. Drawing on case studies from Burkina Faso, Kenya and Sudan, the research explores pastoralists’ experiences of accessing, using and governing shared grazing lands under customary and formal tenure arrangements.

Using qualitative fieldwork and an adapted Prindex approach, the study assesses perceptions of tenure security at both group and individual levels, recognising variation by gender, wealth and social position. Across all three cases, pastoralists reported relatively high perceived tenure security despite the absence of formal land documentation. This security is underpinned by strong social cohesion, locally legitimate leadership, flexible rules governing land use, good relations with neighbouring communities and the ability to maintain livestock mobility.

The report also identifies growing pressures on collective tenure systems, including agricultural expansion, land privatisation, climate change and conflict, alongside persistent gender inequalities in some contexts. It concludes by identifying key characteristics of collective tenure that can inform more appropriate indicators for measuring perceived tenure security in pastoral settings, with implications for policy, programming and global land tenure monitoring.

Business model innovation for behaviour change within the goat value chain in Ethiopia

Maureen Kamusiime — 2025-12-15

This policy brief examines how behaviour change in Ethiopia’s goat value chain was achieved through trust-based, market systems facilitation under the Resilience in Pastoral Areas (RiPA) programme. It calls on policy-makers and donors to invest in embedded actors, decentralised market access and scalable peer learning models to sustain inclusive, climate-resilient livestock trade.

Key messages

Innovations in business models are difficult for external organisations such as non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to introduce. Despite best intentions, such innovations are overly focused on reaching marginalised or vulnerable groups and not necessarily on the direct and indirect costs experienced by a business that may lead to increased revenues. Traders especially easily keep the aspects of the business model innovation that work and drop any aspect, such as new livestock pricing models, that do not yield the desired returns. In this study, most traders continued business relationships with rural aggregators using mobile phones because it reduced the traders’ costs when sourcing livestock. National traders do not offer weight-based pricing of livestock because it diminishes profit margin, despite preference for livestock pricing by regional traders.
Digital market information is the single most cost-effective driver of change. Phone and WhatsApp communication helps align supply with buyer demand, builds trust and reduces losses. But weak telecom networks limit the transformative potential. Expansion of rural telecom access, as well as investment in digital applications or low-cost SMS-based tools, make markets more accessible to pastoralists and increase trade from rural areas.
Trust-based credit supports business continuity and strengthens relationships but is fragile. Defaults and lack of formal mechanisms expose actors to high risks. A fixed amount of working capital prevents traders from off-taking more livestock from rural areas, especially when there is abundant supply. Donor-backed escrow systems and guarantee funds create an alternative source of low-cost finance, especially during times of crisis, such as drought, when it is necessary to remove more livestock and increase incomes to pastoralists.
Transport and market infrastructure are critical enablers of scale and inclusion. Shared trucking and feeder-road investments reduce costs, expand women’s participation and improve access to high-value markets. Co-financed local market centres and shared vehicle schemes can be good-value investments for governments and donors.

Enhancing pastoral adaptation strategies in Wau and Jur River Counties, South Sudan

Grace Njoroge — 2025-12-15

This policy brief draws on data collected in 2023 and 2024 to investigate how pastoralist communities in Wau and Jur River counties of South Sudan adapt their livelihood strategies in response to recurrent droughts, armed conflict, economic volatility, floods, and other shocks and crises. Residents of the research area live under constant threat and within an overall context of gender inequality. Despite significant investment from donors and the national government, interventions have failed to create sustainable solutions. As the world’s youngest nation, South Sudan may lack both the experience and resources to address these severe challenges.

Key messages

To protect livelihoods from the adverse effects of climate change, government and development partners should catalyse the adoption of alternative livelihood activities alongside traditional livestock keeping and crop production. This requires capacity development, vocational training, business development services and financial services in the community.
They should promote gender and youth inclusion in decision-making and economic participation to mitigate patriarchal social systems. This means facilitating Village Savings and Loans Associations (VSLAs) and gendertargeted support to women and youth.
They should support integrated conflict resolution programmes that promote inclusive resource sharing. Government and development partners must engage with local community leaders, community-based conflict resolution initiatives and strategies for resource management to reduce tensions between pastoralists and crop cultivators.

Mesures d'anticipation menées par les gouvernements locaux

Magda Nassef — 2025-12-15

De plus en plus, l’action anticipatoire, autrement dit les mesures préventives à prendre pour atténuer les crises avant qu’elles ne se produisent, s’inscrit dans les priorités du secteur humanitaire. Toutefois, les perspectives des gouvernements locaux sont sous-représentées dans ce débat d’acteurs humanitaires internationaux. Le programme SPARC, Soutenir le pastoralisme et l’agriculture durant les crises récurrentes et prolongées, a étudié les rôles des autorités locales face à l’anticipation des chocs, leurs actions et les enjeux auxquels elles sont confrontées pour faire entendre leurs voix. Ce programme était motivé par le fait qu’une plus grande reconnaissance des contributions locales, souvent négligées en raison des pratiques et de la terminologie différentes, aboutirait à une meilleure collaboration avec les efforts internationaux.

Dans le cadre de cette étude, les auteurs et autrices se sont entretenus avec des agents des gouvernements locaux dans deux communes de la région de Mopti, au Mali, et deux districts de Karamoja, en Ouganda. Après avoir identifié avec eux les occasions auxquelles des mesures avaient été prises en réponse à une alerte ou une menace de crise, les conversations renouvelées ont servi à créer un calendrier détaillé de ce qui était connu à un moment donné et des mesures qui avaient été prises. Les conversations se sont également intéressées à l’origine des alertes, aux stratégies adoptées et à la manière dont elles ont été appuyées.

Local government led anticipatory action

Magda Nassef — 2025-12-15

This study engaged with local government staff in two communes in Mopti Region, Mali and two districts in Karamoja in Uganda. After identifying with staff the occasions when they had taken proactive action in response to the warning or threat of a crisis, repeated conversations were used to create a detailed timeline of what was known when and what actions were taken.

The conversations also investigated where warnings came from, what strategies were adopted and how they were supported. The examples that local authority staff gave included floods, droughts, a locust plague and epidemics of human and livestock diseases . The study looked only at the perspectives and thinking of local authorities on forward-looking action: their successes and the opinions of assisted populations was largely beyond its scope.

Supporting (agro) pastoralists’ resilience through real-time monitoring of drought in Kenya and Ethiopia

Kelvin Mashisia Shikuku — 2025-12-15

This report documents the implementation and achievements of the Drought Index-insurance for Resilience in the Sahel and Horn of Africa (DIRISHA) project. It documents the project’s impacts on pastoralists’ welfare, discusses the role of partnerships, and provides lessons and recommendations for policy and future research in the use of citizen science and crowdsourcing techniques to support resilience in fragile and conflict-affected settings.

Influencer les indicateurs du régime foncier collectif

Fiona Flintan — 2025-12-14

Le régime foncier pastoral collectif et les perceptions de la sécurité foncière pastorale ne sont pas bien compris. Par conséquent, ce régime foncier collectif n'est pas pris en compte dans les systèmes mondiaux de surveillance du régime foncier, tels que celui mis en place par Prindex.

Nous avons étudié les systèmes fonciers collectifs au Burkina Faso, au Kenya et au Soudan afin d'orienter l'élaboration future d'indicateurs de sécurité foncière dans les communautés. Nous nous sommes concentrés sur la sécurité foncière perçue et sur l'élaboration de caractéristiques et d'indicateurs à mesurer. Deux niveaux de propriété foncière et de sécurité foncière ont été pris en compte : celui du collectif et celui des individus au sein du collectif, en reconnaissant que les collectifs ne sont pas homogènes.

Nous avons collaboré avec des groupes pastoraux typiques où la propriété collective et la gouvernance sont relativement solides, et où le pastoralisme fonctionne bien. En 2022-2023, nous avons commencé par examiner la littérature afin d'établir le contexte, puis nous avons interrogé des informateurs clés et organisé des discussions de groupe avec des collectifs pastoraux. Les discussions ont porté sur la perception du groupe sur la sécurité foncière, du collectif lui-même, ainsi que sur la perception individuelle de la sécurité de l'accès à la terre et aux ressources en tant que membres du groupe.

Résultats
Aucune des communautés pastorales ne détient de documents officiels attestant leur propriété foncière, mais elles se considèrent néanmoins comme les propriétaires légitimes de leurs terres. Celles-ci sont soumises à des pressions externes et internes, telles que les projets agricoles à grande échelle et les initiatives de privatisation des terres, ce qui entraîne une augmentation des conflits entre les différents utilisateurs des terres.
La sécurité foncière perçue est toutefois élevée pour les éleveurs, tant au niveau collectif qu'individuel. Les caractéristiques importantes de la sécurité foncière étaient la cohésion sociale avec un leadership clair et autonome, de bonnes relations avec les voisins ou les hôtes qui accordent des droits d'utilisation secondaires ou le droit de se déplacer sur leurs terres avec le bétail, et la flexibilité du système pour répondre aux menaces et aux défis nouveaux ou récurrents, tels que de nouveaux développements d'infrastructures, des régimes pluviométriques plus variables et l'empiètement des terres de pâturage par les agriculteurs.

Implications politiques
Le bon fonctionnement des régimes fonciers collectifs repose sur quatre facteurs qui peuvent être utilisés pour élaborer des indicateurs de la sécurité foncière perçue. Il s'agit des facteurs suivants :
- Des règles et une gestion solides mais souples, établies localement et soutenues par un leadership fort et respecté ;
- Un sens hérité des valeurs et des pratiques collectives, mais aussi la reconnaissance et le renforcement des droits des membres individuels du collectif, notamment des femmes et des jeunes potentiellement marginalisés ;
- De bonnes relations locales entre les éleveurs et les autres communautés voisines ; et
- La possibilité de se déplacer librement sur le territoire du collectif et sur celui d'autres collectifs avec leur accord.

How to manage crises differently in ASALs without talking about a nexus

Nancy Balfour — 2025-12-13

We have known for decades that the international aid model for responding to emergencies does not work well where crises are frequent. Long-term development planning struggles to deal with crises, often leaving the responsibility to separate emergency interventions – but these short-term measures often undermine longerterm strategies. Various theoretical approaches have been proposed for addressing this fragmented situation, but with little success.

SPARC’s recent research on the provision of water in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs) of eastern Africa offers a different way of addressing the issue. By identifying the specific problems caused by the lack of integration between emergency water interventions and water development, sensible solutions can be found without getting bogged down in jargon around the development–water–peace ‘nexus’ or in resilience frameworks.

This same approach offers more practical ways forward than the struggles that arise when the starting point is the architecture of emergency assistance rather than a shared responsibility for providing a reliable water supply.

Narratives of change

Nyibol Elizabeth Malou — 2025-12-10

This issue brief examines the evolving productive roles of Agar Dinka women in South Sudan, in the context of increasing male absence due to conscription, conflict, and economic migration.

The study was conducted in January and February 2025 across four counties in Lakes State by the lead author and a team of local researchers. Drawing primarily on women’s firsthand accounts, the research explores four key themes:
- Women's traditional productive roles.
- Women's current productive roles.
- Drivers of change.
- The benefits and drawbacks of these changes.

Key findings include:
- Agar Dinka women have traditionally played vital roles in crop cultivation, livestock care, food management, and income generation. With the growing absence of men, women are increasingly taking on greater responsibilities, especially in rural areas where they often lead both farming and livestock activities.
- Displaced women in urban areas are assuming new roles in humanitarian work, wage labour, and small-scale enterprise.
- Younger women are more open to new opportunities, whereas older women often express concern about the erosion of traditional structures and support systems.
Policy implications include:
- The need for agriculture and livelihood-related policy processes in South Sudan to acknowledge and adapt to the changing roles of women.
- It is critical to engage women as active decision-makers, not merely as recipients or beneficiaries of policy interventions planned for men.

Gender transformative approaches in pastoral areas

Renee Bullock — 2025-11-24

Gender transformative approaches (GTAs) engage with and address deeply embedded structural inequities. While pastoral systems share certain features with other livelihood systems, their unique characteristics require that GTAs are tailored or adapted to address particular perennial challenges. Tailoring GTAs is essential to also ensure that interventions do not unintentionally reproduce inequalities through exclusion.

We reviewed primary and secondary sources to understand GTAs in pastoral contexts in SPARC countries in Africa. The data sources provide insight on the primary foci of GTAs, target groups, impacts, mechanisms used to implement GTAs and, lastly, metrics used to assess impact.

From risk to resilience

Wendy Chamberlin — 2025-11-20

Humanitarian and development often encourage pastoralists to adopt innovations they believe will benefit pastoralists. Despite a multitude of innovations being introduced each year, sustained adoption by pastoralists is limited. Introduced innovations often reflect limited understanding of adaptations used by pastoralists. Innovations that include feedback mechanisms and iteration during the design and testing phase experience greater adoption when introduced in new areas.

SPARC researchers have carried out 23 studies on innovations. We reviewed these studies and interviewed research leads to identify common findings on pastoralists’ perceptions of risk.

Findings include:

Pastoralists in arid and semi-arid areas prioritise locally-developed adaptations. Despite good intentions, innovations introduced by external actors to help pastoralists manage risks typically address a single issue without accounting for the complex, overlapping challenges pastoralists face. Such narrow focus frequently results in limited adoption by intended end-users.
Before developing effective innovations, it is essential to understand how pastoralists perceive, interpret, and prioritise the risks they encounter. This includes how individual pastoralists and households make sense of the reasons for these risks. This informs how they evaluate their threat exposure and what they prioritise to protect (e.g. relationships, cash, assets) before adapting, absorbing, or recovering from threats.. Doing so can give insight as to their adaptation priorities and the resources they may need to adapt.

Policy implications include:

Externally introduced innovations will only be relevant if designed to complement the many existing ways that pastoralists gather information, prioritise their needs, and make use of their social networks.
By understanding both pastoralist perceived risks and what they seek to protect, innovators and external actors can better identify solutions that will genuinely support pastoralists to adapt to hazards.

Recommendations include:

Investment in innovation requires timelines and financing that supports end-user feedback and product / process iteration. Without iteration and contextualisation, innovations struggle to reach target end-users beyond an initial pilot phase.
Reconsider single purpose innovations. Innovations that have multiple uses or can be adapted by pastoralists or end-users have the highest adoption rates.
Build on existing de-risking approaches that are prioritised by pastoralists. For example, digital communications that support access to or expansion of social networks.
Invest in activities that build end-user trust in innovations; especially innovations designed to improve access to information. End-users must trust the information before they continue to use an innovation.

Dynamic livelihoods in conflict and recurrent crises

Leigh Mayhew — 2025-11-20

Understanding the dynamics of change is important. In places affected by recurrent crises and conflict, we know from experience that people’s livelihoods are dynamic. In the face of uncertainty, many people look to reinvent their livelihoods; they may innovate, copy, change or adapt. But those seeking to support them, i.e. their governments and the aid sector, do not always seek to understand the changes which people are already making, or the opportunities and the constraints they face in doing so. This may be leading to loss of focus on the needs and interests of the people those external actors are seeking to support.

This research presents the personal accounts of a number of people who have attempted to make changes and who have achieved some degree of success. Not everyone has such stories to tell. But documenting these selected stories offers policy-makers and others a different way of approaching the livelihoods of people affected by crises and conflict. It demonstrates that those challenged by uncertainty are not passive victims – rather, they are using their own agency to navigate crises and, where opportunity allows, seeking to advance their lives.

Food aid, sharing and resilience

Fiona Flintan — 2025-11-19

The Horn of Africa is experiencing increased frequency, duration and severity of droughts, strongly influenced by climate change. Considerable attention has been given to targeting food aid, concerned that its impact may be diluted by recipients sharing food with others or diverting it to better-off households. Community social structures and coping mechanisms are perceived by government and aid agencies to be weakening to a point of failure.

To understand if and how pastoralists shared food aid, and if this affected their ability to cope with and recover from drought, we studied households in three purposively selected kebeles of Su’ula (Afar), Asli (Somali) and Fuldowa (Oromia) that had received food aid during the drought of 2020–2023.

We interviewed all 1,805 heads of households in three kebeles using a survey to ask about sharing of food (and other types of) aid (receiving and giving), its effects on coping with and recovering from drought, and about the strength of the community. Following an initial analysis of survey data, including social network mapping of giving and receiving of food aid, we interviewed households seen to play an important or clear connecting role in the network to explore the reasons for their exceptionalness.

Findings include:
- Some 86% of the households surveyed reported having received food aid from formal aid distribution sources, with 86% of households reporting that they received food aid shared from another household.
- Seventy-nine percent said that they shared food aid with another household, with a significant number both receiving and sharing. Sharing was most prevalent in Oromia (Fuldowa), with 98% of households receiving food aid from another household. Most transactions took place within the kebele.
- Relationships between givers and receivers highlighted the emphasis on family and the community.
- About 61% of households sharing food aid said they share because the recipient had none, and another 27% said, “it is normal to share.”
- While 61% of households said that the single most crucial factor that helped them cope with drought was formal food aid distribution, the sharing of food aid between households is seen as an important, often perceived as obligatory, social interaction that keeps their community strong.

Policy implications include:
- Social resilience during a drought is not solely determined by access to aid but alsoby the social fabric through which it flows.
- Social networks - including improving inclusivity - need to be strengthened, rather than trying to stop or limit their functionality by telling communities not to share food aid.
- Targeting of food aid (as with other aid) needs to be improved through co-design of interventions by humanitarian actors and community members to account for and support household connectivity.

Market monitoring and localised research in extreme conflict

2025-10-17

This issue brief captures the key lessons from pioneering a locally-led approach to market monitoring, analysis and research in a context of extreme conflict and insecurity across Darfur, Sudan. It reflects on adaptations made to conventional market monitoring systems, drawing on experienced expert opinion from the ground, and on the importance of adaptive and simplified project management when working in a war zone.

Ten ways to create people-centred early warning systems in conflicts and recurrent crises

Simon Levine — 2025-10-15

This policy brief explores the challenges of creating a multi-hazard early warning system in conflict and recurrent crises, and what it means in such difficult places for them to be ‘people-centred’. It provides 10 recommendations for supporting people-centred early warning systems in conflicts and recurrent crises, drawing on learning from research projects conducted by SPARC over the past six years.

Disponible en français.

Ten ways to reduce disaster risk in conflicts and recurring crises

Simon Levine — 2025-10-15

This policy brief makes the case that disaster risk reduction in conflict and recurring crises is both necessary and possible – it can be, and is being, done locally, even without support. Analysis from research projects by SPARC over the past six years is distilled in 10 recommendations that set an approach to reducing disaster risk that is relevant in conflict and recurring crises – and that can achieve scale.

*Disponible en français.

Twelve ways to take anticipatory action to scale in conflicts and recurring crises

Simon Levine — 2025-10-15

This policy brief considers what is required for anticipatory action models to reach scale in difficult places, such as conflicts and recurrent crises. It provides 12 recommendations based on learning from research projects conducted by SPARC over the past six years. *Disponible en français.

Humanitarian agencies are giving progressively more attention to anticipatory action, i.e. proactive response to the threat of a crisis. But successful models for such action are not necessarily replicable in ‘difficult places’ with conflicts and recurring crises. Conflicts affect everything that can happen where it occurs.

SPARC has conducted many research studies over the past five years about enhancing livelihoods in these difficult places, including studies that directly looked at early warning and anticipatory action. The policy review looked at all SPARC publications, and it distils all of the findings and recommendations that are relevant to supporting anticipatory action in conflicts and recurring crises.

This brief does not set out a full analysis of everything that is known about anticipatory action in conflicts and recurring crises. It limits itself to synthesising the lessons from SPARC’s other studies. Each had its own methodological approach.

Findings

Successful anticipatory action has mainly been achieved in an overall context of a functioning state, within an economy that remains largely unaffected by a disaster that is limited in scope and duration, and where there are markets that work.

These conditions exclude conflicts and recurring crises where it is harder to:

identify when to trigger ‘anticipatory’ action, because there may be no pre-crisis normality
find interventions that can allow people to head off crisis, where people are already using every coping strategy possible and where the spike in crisis may last more than a few months
implement effective action, given that the functioning of state institutions is usually highly constrained and trust in society is usually low.

Policy implications

In places with conflicts and/or recurrent crises, it is not possible to replicate anticipatory projects that have been successful elsewhere. Anticipatory action is much harder where there is no pre-crisis normality, no predictable trajectory for any crisis and it is harder to define obvious triggers in advance.
Conflicts affect everything. They shape how shocks affects people, and also what actions are feasible, and who will benefit from any action. In places with conflict, it is essential to ask three questions:

How will the conflict affect the impacts of the forecast shock?
How will the conflict affect plans to respond to the forecasts?
How will the plans affect conflict?

Anticipatory action cannot be planned in isolation. It must be part of an overall strategy of disaster risk management (DRM).
Centralised models of anticipatory action and tying funds to a single set of triggers at national level are incompatible with the flexibility needed to be context-appropriate, and responsive to local situations and their windows of opportunity for action.
Promoting anticipatory action means supporting everyone’s capacity to make their own forward-looking decisions. Governments and other agencies should not focus solely on implementing their own pre-planned, pre-funded projects.

Youth in farmer-herder conflicts

Magda Nassef — 2025-09-30

This report explores the roles of young men and women in farmer–herder conflicts in Sudan and Nigeria. It highlights the severe livelihood and social impacts of conflict on youth and calls for their inclusion in governance, support for youth-led peace-building, gender-responsive skill-building, and expanded access to finance and opportunities.

Do new permanent water supplies in the drylands help build resilience?

Nancy Balfour — 2025-09-30

Permanent water supplies are often assumed to have a positive impact on climate resilience. However, there are concerns about potential negative effects of water supply developments in drylands on grazing patterns, settlement and conflicts. To manage these risks, planning for water investments must be informed by evidence (not assumptions) on their links with resilience.

Study teams visited four sites in different sub-counties in Marsabit County, Kenya, and five sites in Geshamo and Dagahbur districts in Somali Region, Ethiopia. We looked at:

the literature and had consultations with experts;
the sites' impact on people’s resilience and ability to cope with the most recent drought;
how far any improvements will provide longer-term resilience to climate change impacts;
the perceptions of different stakeholders on the role of new water supplies in resilience strategies and climate adaptation;
the plausible causal chains leading from a new water source to resilience, as broadly understood;
the impacts of water sources on resilience from as many perspectives as possible.

Findings

Only around half the boreholes visited were functional, and most of those were providing only saline water, causing health problems.
Formal management systems often lacked accountability, and indigenous systems had been sidelined.
Women benefited from reduced water-fetching burdens but boreholes did not support irrigation or other economic activities. Any economic benefits were often captured by elites.
The boreholes led to settlement, overgrazing and rangeland degradation, undermining mobility. Water projects had been used to advance claims for resources, leading to conflict.
Boreholes did not reduce livestock losses during the 2021–23 drought or help pastoralists cope better.

Policy implications

The current approach to providing new water supplies is undermining rather than enhancing pastoralists’ resilience.
Mobility must be recognised as the key adaptation strategy for pastoralists in the Horn of Africa.
Settlements and overgrazing caused by new water supplies in fallback grazing areas exposes pastoralists to drought.
Integrating traditional governance mechanisms in the management of water supplies would help to prevent social fragmentation and conflict.
Urgent action is needed to manage salinity problems in water supplies.

Women in farmer-herder conflicts

Magda Nassef — 2025-09-30

This report explores women’s roles in farmer–herder conflicts in Sudan and Nigeria, documenting how conflict affects their livelihoods, food security and psychosocial well-being. It highlights women’s agency alongside their exclusion from decision-making and recommends context-specific support to strengthen economic resilience, land access, leadership and inclusion in peace-building.

Accès à la terre et résilience des femmes refugiées soudanaises au Tchad

Camille Laville — 2025-09-26

En 2025, plus d’un million de réfugiés soudanais, principalement des femmes et des enfants, vivent dans l’Est du Tchad, certains depuis plus de 15 ans. Le gouvernement tchadien et ses partenaires humanitaires souhaitent soutenir leur autonomisation par l’accès à la terre. Néanmoins, cet accès se fait aujourd’hui principalement par des accords avec les communautés hôtes selon des conditions méconnues.

Cette étude explore les obstacles et opportunités d’accès à la terre des réfugiées soudanaises dans l’est du Tchad, en analysant les perceptions des communautés. Elle examine les barrières systémiques, l’impact des caractéristiques sociales des femmes sur leur accès à la terre, et les opportunités pour améliorer la coordination des acteurs.

Les données recueillies proviennent de 30 groupes de discussion menés avec plus de 300 personnes des camps de Touloum, Djabal et Abou-Tengué en février 2025. Elles sont complétées par une revue de la littérature grise et académique, une étude des budgets nationaux, et des entretiens qualitatifs réalisés auprès d’acteurs humanitaires, administratifs, coutumiers, et de spécialistes des questions de genre et de foncier au Tchad, entre octobre 2024 et février 2025.

L’engagement du Tchad et de ses partenaires humanitaires et de développement en faveur des réfugiés reste freiné par l’absence d’objectifs clairs concernant l’accès des femmes à la terre. Face à la baisse des financements, repenser l’accès à la terre comme enjeu transversal permet d’éviter des appuis inefficaces et mal ciblés.

Les hôtes et les réfugiés reconnaissent largement que les femmes réfugiées accèdent moins à la terre si elles sont enceintes ou seules avec des enfants jeunes ou des personnes handicapées à charge. A l’inverse, la jeunesse et le soutien de la famille proche, notamment des adolescents, sont perçus comme des avantages clés.

La marchandisation des terres accentue les inégalités de genre en empêchant les femmes réfugiées sans garant masculin d’accéder à la terre. La confusion entre accès et utilisation des terres est une source de tensions entre communautés, fragilisant la coexistence pacifique et les programmes de villagisation.

Recommandations

Intégrer pleinement les enjeux fonciers pour les communautés hôtes et réfugiées dans les objectifs climatiques nationaux.
Accorder une attention accrue aux inégalités d’accès liées à la composition des ménages dans les stratégies nationales pour l’Est, sensibiliser les autorités locales à ces sujets et établir des dispositifs juridiques adaptés aux barrières genrées.
Soutenir l’accès équitable aux semences et outils agricoles, adapté au genre et aux réalités locales afin d’éviter les effets locaux néfastes et les ruptures d’approvisionnement.
Prioriser les zones où les camps empiètent sur les terres hôtes ou affectées par la marchandisation des terres dans les programmes de dons de terres réhabilitées.
Mener une évaluation conjointe des infrastructures routières et hydriques, incluant les communautés hôtes, pour mieux cibler les investissements et réduire les sentiments d’injustice.

Ce rapport est disponible en anglais.

Lessons for research funders from locally led action research on women’s empowerment among pastoralists

Katharine Vincent — 2025-09-01

Key findings and recommendations

Research funders should fund action research as it helps to address the need for immediate tangible benefits.
Flexibility with progress milestones and disbursement schedules helps researchers cope with volatilit and unpredictability.
Research proposals need to articulate how access and trust of both women and men will be gained if the aim to shift gender norms is to be achieved.
Research funders should set expectations appropriate for the type of implementing organisation carryingout the research, to support better outcomes.

Supporting adolescent girls’ well-being in climate- and conflict-affected areas of East and West Africa

Tom Kipruto — 2025-06-30

This policy brief synthesises evidence on interventions to support the financial and psychosocial well-being of adolescent girls in vulnerable pastoral areas, highlighting gaps to inform future programmes and policies.

Transforming pastoral livelihoods through market interventions: does the impact match expectations?

Claire Bedelian — 2025-06-27

Models that seek to drive transformation of rural economies by greater market orientation have been widely used, including, over many years, in pastoral economies. Even where evaluations have shown successful implementation, little has been studied about their contribution to change because studies have not sought to trace the impacts down to the intended ‘beneficiaries’, the small-scale rural producers.

This is compounded by the problem of learning being restricted to project timeframes, whereas sustainable change can be seen only in much longer timeframes. As a result, we know too little about how best to support resilience in pastoral economies.

The report is based on an internal impact assessment of market-based development programmes implemented over the past decade and more in Somali Regional State in Ethiopia. It looks only at general lessons about the development model and theory of change, and its appropriateness for pastoral economies. Using the programmes as a case studies of resilience-building, it offers lessons of wide applicability on approaches that could make investments in resilience more effective.

The inconvenient truths of water development in the drylands of the Horn of Africa

Nancy Balfour — 2025-06-26

This policy brief examines the risks and impacts of permanent water supplies in the drylands of Ethiopia and Kenya, finding that poorly planned investments can disrupt grazing, settlement and resource access if not grounded in evidence.

The impact of war on trade and markets in Darfur

SPARC - — 2025-04-14

This issue brief provides an overview of how trade and markets in Darfur have adapted, positively and negatively, to the conflict since full-scale war broke out in April 2023. It is mainly focused on trade and markets within the five Darfur states. It complements the SPARC brief 'Darfur’s long-distance trade: impact of war and Rapid Support Forces' trade embargo'. Although Darfur had already experienced 20 years of violent conflict since 2003, the nature and intensity of the current war is on an entirely different scale, now nationwide and fuelled by wider geopolitical interests.

This brief identifies some trends that have amplified adaptations to the conflict in Darfur since 2003, and some that are new. It is based on first-hand observation and data collected by a network of researchers across all five Darfur states who are in regular contact with traders in each of the Darfur state capitals. Our focus is trade and market dynamics; it is beyond the scope of the brief to capture the consequences for agricultural production and producers.

The war economy in Darfur

2025-04-14

This brief explores how trade fuels conflict through the war economy in Darfur and highlights consequences for established traders, with the aim of informing market-oriented humanitarian programming.

Darfur’s long-distance trade

2025-04-14

The ongoing war in Sudan between the Sudanese Armed Forces (SAF) and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF), which began in April 2023, has profoundly disrupted Darfur’s economy. With the RSF controlling most of the region (except El Fasher), trade and economic activity have come under its authority.

The RSF’s embargo on regular trade has obstructed the movement and export of locally produced commodities, isolating western Sudan from national and international markets. This has directly and indirectly affected producers, traders, businesspeople, transporters, and wage laborers across multiple sectors.

Drawing on first‑hand accounts and monitoring from Darfur’s states, the brief highlights the compounding consequences of conflict on trade, livelihoods, and food security, offering insights for humanitarian, development, and peace actors.

Behavioural and norms-responsive animal health systems for pastoralists in Ethiopia and Kenya

Noura Kamel — 2025-03-31

Millions of people in marginalised regions depend on pastoralism for their livelihoods, yet they face mounting threats from conflict and climate change. Limited access to animal health services (AHS) and low demand for care have led to higher livestock mortality and reduced productivity—putting entire communities at risk.

Strengthening AHS delivery is crucial, but real progress requires a comprehensive understanding of the behavioural, social, and gender dynamics that shape these systems. Despite pastoralist women playing a central role in livestock management, their influence remains largely overlooked.

This field-based study focuses on four pastoral communities: Oromia and Somali regions in Ethiopia, and Isiolo and Samburu in Kenya. The research explores innovative ways to improve access and the use of AHS in the face of growing challenges. Using a qualitative approach that combines a literature review with primary data collection methods (including key informant interviews, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions), data was gathered from pastoral community members, AHS professionals, relevant government officials, and other stakeholders at the community, regional, and national/federal levels in Ethiopia and Kenya.

Findings include: In both Ethiopia and Kenya, AHS are often inaccessible, under-resourced, or costly, leading pastoralists to rely on self-treatment and ethnoveterinary practices. Women, especially those heading households or when male partners are unavailable, actively manage AHS but face disproportionate barriers such as time burden, mobility constraints, insufficient animal health knowledge, and financial limitations. Gender norms further restrict women’s decision-making and access to male-dominated AHS providers, though evolving roles due to climate change are reshaping responsibilities.

Policy recommendations include: Expanding last-mile delivery through public-private partnerships (PPPs) and community-based models like Community Animal Health Workers (CAHWs) can improve reach and affordability. Increasing women’s participation in AHS provision, leveraging digital tools , and introducing mediated consultations can further enhance accessibility. Strengthening PPPs - whether in Ethiopia’s public-driven system or Kenya’s private-sector model - is key to building a sustainable, inclusive animal health ecosystem.

Does resilience-building last when projects end?

Dorice Agol — 2025-03-31

Few studies assess the longer‑term impacts of resilience‑building projects in drylands once external support ends. This research revisits three interventions in Turkana, Kenya village (savings and loan associations (VSLAs), improved water supply, and livestock marketing) six years after project closure.

All institutions persisted but none functioned as intended. Informal rules and power relations continued to shape outcomes, limiting enforcement of formal regulations. VSLAs were decapitalising, sustained only by further aid, and excluded most community members. Boreholes provided reliable water but encouraged settlement, reducing mobility and sparking resource conflicts.

Findings highlight that institutional sustainability requires alignment between formal and informal rules, and that power asymmetries predictably undermine outcomes.

Policy implications stress the need for systematic retrospective evaluation, realistic expectations of incremental change, and designs grounded in existing practices. Resilience programming should avoid assumptions of transformative change and instead support organic, locally driven processes that build on what communities already do.

What happened when resilience-building projects closed

Collete Benoudji — 2025-03-31

This report evaluates the long-term success of a climate-smart agriculture project at building resilience five years after it ended in eastern Chad.

Rethinking land policy for Kenya’s pastoral communities

Ken Otieno — 2025-03-27

This policy brief reviews Kenya’s 2009 National Land Policy and its implications for pastoralists, recommending reforms to better protect collective rights, integrate indigenous practices, and involve pastoral communities in land use planning and governance. It was released to influence the government’s ongoing review of the National Land Policy.

The use of gender transformative approaches (GTAs) in pastoralist societies

Ramona Ridolfi — 2025-03-11

This policy brief reviews behaviour change strategies and monitoring tools used in gender-transformative approaches in the Horn of Africa, offering insights to inform future programme design for dryland communities.

Do public works programmes create valuable assets for livelihoods and resilience?

Simon Levine — 2024-12-19

Public works programmes (PWPs) channel billions of dollars annually, with wage transfers forming a major share of budgets. These programmes justify additional costs of supervision and materials by assuming that constructed assets will generate long‑term livelihood benefits. Yet evidence of such impacts is rarely studied.

Using mixed methods in Ethiopia (soil and water conservation in North Wollo) and Kenya (earth dams in Makueni County), this report assessed the contribution of PWP assets three to five years after implementation. Findings reveal negligible livelihood impacts: earth dams failed to improve water access due to poor design, while hillside conservation produced visible environmental changes without economic benefits. Across both cases, labour absorption was prioritized over asset quality, undermining resilience outcomes.

The study highlights systemic weaknesses in PWP design and monitoring, cautioning against reliance on anecdotal success stories. Policy implications stress the need for rigorous evaluation, cost‑effectiveness, and consideration of unconditional transfers where asset benefits cannot be assured.

Bearing the burden

Florence Pinchon — 2024-12-05

Understanding climate‑attributable loss and damage is critical for least developed countries seeking support to address climate impacts. This report analyses data from 18 countries in the Sahel and Horn of Africa between 2000 and 2022, estimating the costs of extreme weather events in terms of lives lost, agricultural damage, and broader socio‑economic impacts.

Climate change contributed to 12,000 deaths and affected nearly 149 million people, with $11.5 billion in crop and livestock losses. Projections suggest costs could reach $160 billion by 2050 under 2°C warming. Beyond economic losses, communities face non‑economic damages, including health impacts, loss of livelihoods, cultural identity, and traditional knowledge.

Despite data gaps in fragile contexts, the report demonstrates that assessment is possible and essential for equitable funding. It calls for improved methodologies, investment in data collection, and attention to vulnerable groups, supporting the Loss and Damage Fund Board and negotiators in designing effective finance mechanisms.

Readiness to access climate finance in Chad

Camille Laville — 2024-10-10

Chad ranks among the most climate‑vulnerable countries globally, placing last on the 2021 ND‑Gain Index. Increasing droughts underscore the urgent need for climate finance to support adaptation and resilience. This report assesses Chad’s readiness through document review, stakeholder interviews, and engagement with the Accelerating Climate Finance working group.

Findings reveal significant barriers: weak institutional capacity to plan, access, deliver, and monitor climate finance; limited evidence on climate risks and effectiveness of past actions; and a lack of concrete, bankable projects despite priorities identified in national adaptation strategies. Data gaps, spanning climate, socioeconomic, and geospatial information, further constrain readiness.

While policy frameworks have improved, implementation remains minimal, and external initiatives are unlikely to achieve scale or predictability without stronger domestic commitment. Addressing readiness gaps requires political will at the highest level, investment in data systems, and institutional reforms to mobilise and manage climate finance effectively for resilience in Chad’s fragile context.

État de préparation du Tchad à l’accès au financement climatique

Camille Laville — 2024-10-10

Ce rapport évalue et identifie les obstacles et lacunes à surmonter pour que le Tchad soit prêt à recevoir et à utiliser efficacement les financements climatiques.

Recovering from civil war

Teddy Atim — 2024-09-30

This study investigates the dynamics shaping livelihoods and resilience in fragile contexts, focusing on the intersection of social, economic, and environmental pressures. Using mixed methods, it explores how local communities respond to shocks such as climate variability, conflict, and market disruptions, while also examining the role of governance and external interventions.

Findings highlight the importance of integrating technical expertise with contextual knowledge to design inclusive, sustainable solutions. Evidence shows that while short‑term coping strategies provide temporary relief, long‑term resilience requires investment in education, infrastructure, and equitable access to resources. The report underscores the need for gender‑responsive and socially inclusive approaches that account for intersecting identities and vulnerabilities.

Policy implications stress the importance of adaptive programming, participatory governance, and targeted support to marginalised groups. Ultimately, the study contributes to debates on how to strengthen resilience and promote equitable development in complex, fragile environments.

Assessing and financing loss and damage to climate change in Somalia

Lena Nur — 2024-09-30

This report provides new estimates of climate-attributable losses and damages in Somalia to inform national planning and international advocacy. Between 2000 and 2021, droughts and floods likely linked to climate change caused direct economic impacts equivalent to 3.3% of GDP, with agriculture and livestock losses amounting to $2.84 billion (4.5% of agricultural GDP).

Projections suggest that, without significant climate-resilient development, cumulative losses from floods and droughts could reach $5 to $100 billion by the 2050s. Slow-onset processes, including rising temperatures, rainfall variability, evapotranspiration, and sea-level rise,pose further risks to crop yields, livestock health, and coastal ecosystems.

While opportunities exist to leverage international loss and damage finance, Somalia faces challenges of limited fiscal space, fragile institutions, and constrained access to global funds. Strengthening national capacity to quantify losses and articulate financing needs is critical to securing support for livelihoods and resilience in one of the world’s most climate-vulnerable contexts.

Forecasts for pastoralists

Ellen Reid — 2024-09-27

This policy brief explores the low demand for formal weather forecasts by pastoralists. Such low demand was seen to result from a mismatch between the information needs and systems of pastoralists and how weather information is translated and transferred to them in northern Kenya. Particular problems include: how the certainty of forecasts is conveyed to pastoral users; recognising diversity among pastoralists (particularly gender), and how it impacts information needs, channels, dissemination and use; and the potential for forecasts to increase resource competition.

Findings include: Formal forecasts should not necessarily supplant the longstanding ways pastoralists predict weather but, rather, be delivered to forums where herd managers can consider all sources of information relevant to their livelihood. To make better use of formal weather information, forecasts need to be co-designed with pastoralists to better meet their needs. Weather information should be linked to the types of decisions and trade-offs that end users are making, ones that revolve around the expected availability of water, graze and fodder. Forecast literacy among potential pastoralist users could be improved; the terms and language used by scientific forecasters may not be readily understandable to them.

Participatory planning in East Africa’s drylands, take two

Kamran Hakiman — 2024-09-26

Existing literature paints a confusing picture, where there is neither consensus on whether participatory planning works, nor theory to explain uneven impact. How and when can participatory planning bring local voices into decision-making? Can this make planning more equitable, build resilience and improve governance? To what extent does the effectiveness of interventions depend on local context? Beyond formal design, to what extent does success rely on discretion by local implementers?

This policy brief aims to address those questions by examining Ward Development Planning (WDP), a participatory planning model funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and implemented in northern Kenya from 2017 to 2022. Through mixed methods, combining an evaluation, survey experiments, and in-depth case studies across five counties in Kenya, we not only evaluate the overall impact of WDP, but also use case studies and survey experiments, to examine causal mechanisms to explain why WDP had uneven impacts.

How climate information services (CIS) can help pastoralists in the Horn of Africa

Claire Bedelian — 2024-07-04

This policy brief explores the challenges pastoralists face when using climate information services and outlines key considerations for scaling these up in drylands.

Despite the growing availability of climate information services (CIS), which could help pastoralists adapt to climate change, their use remains limited among pastoralists in the Horn of Africa. Why is this the case? Why do pastoralists not make more use of CIS? How can we make CIS more relevant and accessible to them? In this policy brief, we review the context of CIS for pastoralists in the Horn of Africa and draw on case studies from Ethiopia and Kenya of CIS initiatives in pastoral areas.

The brief looks at the specific needs of pastoralists for climate information, the barriers they face to use such information, and how to develop and deliver CIS tailored for pastoralists.

Our findings show that: Pastoralists face barriers to access and use CIS, including mobility, remoteness, weak telecommunications infrastructure, low mobile phone ownership, low literacy, and gender disparities; Pastoralists will use climate information if, and when, it is timely, localised, context-specific, includes traditional knowledge, and is shared through trusted social networks; Digital services may not always effectively reach pastoralists. Using multiple dissemination channels, combining digital tools with channels pastoralists already use, is beneficial; and Compared to men, women have different needs for climate information, often have less access to mobile phones, and use different channels to receive information.

The results emphasise several key considerations when designing and delivering tailored CIS for pastoralists: To tailor CIS for pastoralists, we need better understanding of the local context, social networks, language, infrastructure, technology and literacy levels. This is best done jointly with pastoralists leading; Using CIS is only one way pastoralists adapt to climate change. CIS should be integrated into broader adaptation; Pastoralists' access to land, inputs and finance needs to be stronger if pastoralists are to make good use of climate information; and Initiatives should be sensitive to gender: we need specific measures to help women pastoralists.

Crowdsourcing data can help monitor drought impacts on food security

Kelvin Mashisia Shikuku — 2024-06-27

Drought is the most significant climatic shock faced by pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in the drylands of sub-Saharan Africa. Early warning information can help households better prepare and respond to drought. However, providing precise early warning information and monitoring indicators of resilience in remote places affected by conflicts, with dispersed markets and poor infrastructure, is hampered by limited ability to gather data using conventional survey methods.

This policy brief shares researchers' experience of using crowdsourced data gathered with the platform KAZNET to observe changes in food security attributable to drought. Researchers further assessed the mechanisms by which drought impacts occur. Uncovering these mechanisms can guide policy-makers to develop strategies to enhance resilience and improve productivity in drought, thereby mitigating food insecurity. Such knowledge can help provide early warning and inform anticipatory action when dealing with shocks.

The key messages are:

Many households experience food insecurity in pastoral areas, even after rainfall improves, as there is a time lag as pasture grows, animals recover, and food and income become available.

Investments in fodder production and storage, market access and linkages, and rangeland management appear to be good options for mitigating the impacts of drought on food security.

Crowdsourcing the collection of high-frequency data is a promising approach for addressing data gaps in drought monitoring, especially in remote pastoral environments. This could help provide early warnings of drought and inform anticipatory action.

Including women data contributors is helpful for gathering information that male contributors might find challenging to collect.

Perceptions of land tenure security in pastoral areas in Marsabit, Kenya

Ken Otieno — 2024-06-27

This report examines land tenure and governance among 550 households in the Waldaa community of northern Marsabit, Kenya, near the Ethiopian border. Pastoral tenure is vested in the collective, where household rights to graze and water livestock coexist with collective rules governing resource use.

For nearly five decades, the Waldaa have retained rights to land and natural resources without formal registration, relying on flexible, overlapping patterns of access that enable pastoralism to thrive. Vulnerable groups, including widows and orphans, report equal rights within the collective.

However, tenure security faces mounting pressures: the Community Land Act (2016) and efforts to register lands, unpredictable weather shortening wet-season grazing, and rising population and settlement. These dynamics risk favouring privatisation of collective lands and intensifying resource conflict.

Findings underscore the importance of community-based governance and strengthening inclusive institutions, with change rooted in participatory dialogue that respects traditional systems.

Collective tenure of pastoral land in Sudan

Hussein M Sulieman — 2024-06-26

Pastoralists in Sudan face persistent land‑tenure insecurity, historically linked to conflict and injustice. Fieldwork in Jabrat Elsheikh, North Kordofan, reveals that dry‑season grazing tenure is collective, governed by unwritten customary rules under tribal authorities.

While pastoralists feel secure in their rights, formal state land laws are absent and largely unknown. Customary systems ensure equal male access and regulate use, exclusion, and transfer, but women remain marginalised. Traditional mechanisms resolve disputes, yet rising populations, farming expansion, and blocked livestock routes threaten mobility and resource access. These pressures risk undermining collective tenure, intensifying competition, and eroding pastoral resilience.

Characterising collective tenure security in pastoral systems in Burkina Faso

Issa Sawadogo — 2024-06-26

Climate change has intensified pressures on grazing in Burkina Faso, with shifting rainfall patterns, shorter rainy seasons, and prolonged dry spells reducing pasture availability. Expansion of cropping, particularly cotton, has further constrained access to land and water for pastoralists.

This report examines pastoral land tenure and governance through the case of Tigre village in Binde commune, Zoundweogo Province. The Wakilé Allah pastoralists, who migrated south in the 1970s and1980s due to northern droughts, now coexist with agro-pastoralists in a region once depopulated by river blindness.

Field interviews and literature review reveal that grazing land, though privately owned, is managed under collective customary rights consistent with the national Land and Rural Orientation Plan (LORP). While widely accepted, tenure security is undermined by agricultural encroachment, weak enforcement, and declining social cohesion. Strengthening pastoral tenure requires legal recognition of customary systems, registration of grazing lands, and locally negotiated charters to balance tradition and protection.

Caractérisation de la sécurité de la tenure collective dans les systèmes pastoraux au Burkina Faso

Issa Sawadogo — 2024-06-26

Ce rapport technique, examine le régime foncier du pastoralisme et sa gouvernance au Burkina Faso. Il se concentre sur les pasteurs ayant migré dans les années 1970 et 1980 du nord vers le sud, poussés par la sécheresse de plus en plus fréquente dans le nord. Les pasteurs cohabitent aujourd'hui avec des agro-pasteurs dans une zone relativement peu peuplée car autrefois frappée par la cécité des rivières, un fléau qui a pris fin avec l'éradication du vecteur de cette maladie, la mouche noire, dans les années 70.

Notre étude passe en revue la littérature sur le pastoralisme et le régime foncier dans le pays, en utilisant le cas du village de Tigré, commune de Bindé, province du Zoundwéogo, dans la région Centre-Sud du Burkina Faso, où nous avons interrogé les pasteurs résidents, les Wakilé Allah.

Nos résultats montrent que les pasteurs utilisent des terres traditionnellement consacrées à l’élevage. Ces terres appartiennent à des propriétaires privés, mais sont gérées en vertu de droits collectifs et coutumiers. Le régime foncier coutumier s'aligne sur Loi nationale d’orientation foncière et de développement rural (LORP), qui réserve les terres au pâturage.

Bien que le système coutumier de gestion des pâturages soit largement accepté, des inquiétudes subsistent quant à la sécurité foncière, menacée par la perte de la cohésion sociale, des espaces pastoraux non délimités, l'empiètement de l'agriculture et l'application inadéquate de la loi.

Pour répondre aux menaces qui pèsent sur le régime foncier des pasteurs, il faut trouver un équilibre qui préserve les pratiques traditionnelles tout en assurant une protection juridique grâce à la gestion et à l'enregistrement des terres. Les pâturages doivent être enregistrés au nom du groupe pastoral ou de la commune, une étape qui comprendra l'élaboration de règles d'utilisation des pâturages et d'une charte foncière locale.

Understanding and characterising collective tenure and tenure security in pastoral systems

Magda Nassef — 2024-03-31

Land‑tenure insecurity is a central driver of farmer–herder conflict in Africa, yet pastoral collective tenure remains poorly understood compared to settled land systems.

This study examines group and individual tenure security among pastoralists in Burkina Faso, Sudan, and Kenya. Despite lacking formal documentation, communities view themselves as rightful landholders.

Findings reveal that shrinking rangelands, blocked mobility, and intensified competition increase the likelihood of violent conflict. The complexity of interacting causes underscores pastoral tenure insecurity as a key factor. Formal recognition of communal rights in rangelands emerges as a critical pathway to legitimacy, enforceability, and conflict mitigation.

Comprendre et caractériser la tenure collective et la sécurité foncière dans les systèmes pastoraux

Magda Nassef — 2024-03-31

L’insécurité foncière a été mise en évidence comme un facteur principal dans les conflits entre agriculteurs et éleveurs. Alors que la tenure et la sécurité foncière des utilisateurs de terres sédentaires ont été bien documentées, la tenure collective pastorale et les degrés de sécurité foncière dans les systèmes pastoraux ne sont pas aussi bien compris.

Pour étudier cette question, nous avons examiné les systèmes de tenure collective au Burkina Faso, au Soudan et au Kenya. Deux niveaux de tenure et de sécurité foncière ont été pris en compte : celui du groupe et celui des individus au sein du groupe, en reconnaissant que les groupes ne sont pas homogènes. Aucune des communautés pastorales étudiées ne détient de documents officiels pour ses terres, mais elles se considèrent comme des propriétaires légitimes.

Pour guider la recherche, nous avons posé les questions suivantes :

Comment les communautés pastorales et leurs membres accèdent-ils aux pâturages? Quelles sont les conditions de cet accès Que se passe-t-il en cas de conflit ?
Quels sont les aspects du régime foncier les plus importants pour les communautés pastorales ?
Quels sont les principaux facteurs d’insécurité foncière pour les communautés pastorales et leurs membres ?

Shepherd’s eye in the sky

Sophie Turnbull — 2024-03-29

This technical brief introduces AfriScout, a digital application that provides pastoralists with near real-time visual data on rangeland conditions using satellite imagery and mobile technology. The application shows great potential for mitigating some of the challenges pastoralists face by providing them with information critical to enhancing their ability to make more informed decisions.

The brief also provides some key findings from a baseline survey, the results of which illustrate how AfriScout could improve activities crucial to successful pastoralism. These include enabling pastoralists to make better decisions about herd management, rangeland conditions and strategic migration. Before fully implementing AfriScout, SPARC partners Causal Design and AfriScout carried out a baseline survey of a sample of households in southern Ethiopia and northern Kenya.

The data from the survey provided insights on the scope of key risk factors pastoralists in these areas face. They include herd size and condition, migration patterns, conflict, and access to information sources leveraged to inform decisions. Though it is too early to draw concrete conclusions about the application’s effectiveness, baseline data from a sub-sample of pastoralists who have already used AfriScout suggest its potential to create positive outcomes and improve decision-making for greater success. The results of the survey also illustrate that pastoralists have positively received AfriScout and consider it reliable and easy to access.

Other findings also indicate the potential utility and relevance of the application as a timely source of reliable, climate-based information to improve pastoralists’ migration and rangeland management decisions.

Impacts of Naira redesign on livelihoods in Hayin Ade and Wuro Bappate, Abuja, Nigeria

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2024-03-27

This policy brief explores how Nigeria’s Naira redesign policy has deepened financial hardship for pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in two rural communities, highlighting the need for support with digital access, ID registration and financial literacy to ensure inclusion in the formal economy.

Pastoralism and agriculture in conflicts and crises

2024-02-29

This report summarises three years of SPARC's work. Chapter 1 reviews SPARC’s research so far into critical knowledge gaps and outlines how this research has been designed to generate change in perceptions, policy-making and aid programming. Chapter 2 looks at the impacts of SPARC’s work so far: how knowledge is being used to support different actors to engage more effectively in the drylands, and how it is being embedded into wider conversations in the humanitarian, climate and development sectors. Finally, Chapter 3 considers the role and importance of SPARC’s research in the years ahead, in shaping longer-term programmes, policies and investments that are sensitive to the unique needs and issues affecting the drylands.

What does it mean to take context seriously for credit and microfinance?

Adam Pain — 2024-01-31

Informal credit is one of the most important economic institutions for most of Afghanistan’s population. Yet between 2001 and 2021, aid practitioners largely failed to take informal credit seriously. This meant that interventions were uninformed about how the rural economy actually worked, and did not engage with one of the most important institutions in the survival of the rural poor. Opportunities were also lost to monitor changes in people’s degree of need.

This brief looks at the importance of informal credit systems in Afghanistan and how engaging with this context might have changed the focus or scope of aid interventions. It is part of a series on the importance of taking context seriously in aid programming.

What does it mean to take context seriously for engaging in markets?

Adam Pain — 2024-01-31

This policy brief argues that aid to Afghanistan from 2001–2021 relied on flawed assumptions about how markets functioned, leading to missed opportunities for more grounded and effective economic interventions. It is part of a series arguing that aid efforts in the country missed opportunities for more effective, context-aware interventions.

Throughout 2001–2021, many millions of dollars were spent on an economic transformation of Afghanistan that never happened. Investment was based on an implicit theory of how markets worked and how markets could drive the economy, which did not match the reality on the ground. Economic and agricultural development policy can’t work without understanding how Afghan markets work.

This policy brief looks at how understanding Afghanistan's market context might have changed the focus or scope of aid interventions. It is part of a series on the importance of taking context seriously in aid programming.

What does it mean to take context seriously for post-harvest processing and storage?

Adam Pain — 2024-01-31

Support for food processing and post-harvest storage could contribute significantly to food security and nutrition, but this was neglected in aid programming in the 2001–2021 period. Instead, the few interventions in the sector focused on expensive technological packages for larger private sector companies, with no tangible benefits for those who were food insecure.

This policy brief looks at post-harvest losses in Afghanistan and how engaging with this context might have changed the focus or scope of aid interventions. It is part of a series on the importance of taking context seriously in aid programming.

What does it mean to take context seriously for rural differentiation?

Adam Pain — 2024-01-31

From 2001 to 2021, the development vision for Afghanistan was based on a market-driven transformation of agriculture. Billions of dollars were spent with little success, and with even fewer benefits being enjoyed by the poor and those who were food insecure. A significant reason for this failure is that a single model was used of how the rural economy works, leading to national programmes that were inappropriate for most of the population.

There was an unwillingness to consider the huge diversity in local economies, in households within those economies, or in individuals in extended family households.

This policy brief examines how a one-size-fits-all approach to agricultural development in Afghanistan overlooked the diversity of rural economies and households, limiting the effectiveness and equity of aid investments. It is part of a series arguing that aid efforts in the country missed opportunities for more effective, context-aware interventions.

What does it mean to take context seriously for village-level governance?

Adam Pain — 2024-01-31

Between 2001 and 2021, community development councils (CDCs) were the vehicle through which Afghanistan was supposed to be transformed through grassroots inclusive participation in governance. Billions of dollars were spent on this new organisational arrangement, which was the vehicle delivering the government’s ‘flagship’ development programme. But CDCs had a mixed record as a conduit for funds for local projects. They failed totally to build a new, democratic Afghanistan or greater state legitimacy.

This policy brief looks at the importance of understanding village-level governance structures in Afghanistan and how engaging with this context might have changed the focus or scope of aid interventions. It is part of a series on the importance of taking context seriously in aid programming.

Ten traps to avoid if aid programming is serious about engaging with context

Simon Levine — 2024-01-24

Following the overthrow of the first Taliban regime in Afghanistan in 2001, international donors made investments amounting to billions of dollars over the next 20 years in an almost unparalleled effort to transform the country. Studies of the impacts of these investments have broadly concluded that the results were very disappointing. Despite gains in health and education outcomes, little was achieved in terms of reducing levels of poverty and food insecurity.

This report, with accompanying summary, explains 10 traps that practitioners and donors must avoid if aid is to engage thoughtfully with its context. Some pitfalls are more foundational in that they relate to the basic design of policies and strategies, while others relate more to programme implementation and monitoring. But they are all inter-linked and mutually reinforcing. We draw on examples from Afghanistan because the traps – and the implications of falling into them – could so easily be identified there.

However, these same failings have been identified in the aid system globally, even beyond the fragile and conflict-affected places that are the particular concern of this research. This report will help you to understand the traps and learn how to avoid them, wherever you are working. This research is accompanied by five briefs that will help decision makers integrate a deeper understanding of Afghanistan into their work. These briefs focus on village-level governance structures , informal credit , rural differentiation , post-harvest storage and processing and engaging in markets.

Faced with floods

Alex Humphrey — 2023-12-21

Conflict and climate shocks are reshaping pastoral and agro‑pastoral livelihood systems across South Sudan. Prolonged and widespread flooding has devastated crops and livestock, forcing households to reorient their livelihood strategies in Unity State and beyond. Yet evidence remains limited on how pastoralists and agro‑pastoralists are adapting, and whether these shifts represent temporary coping mechanisms or signal permanent transformations in pastoral systems.

This report addresses these knowledge gaps by examining livelihood portfolio changes among affected households in Unity State. It explores donor and implementer concerns about the future viability of pastoralism, including prospects for recovery, the likelihood of resuming pastoral production, and the timeframes required for rebuilding resilience.

Findings highlight both the volatility of pastoral livelihoods under climate and conflict pressures and the need for adaptive, context‑sensitive support that aligns with communities’ evolving strategies in the face of uncertainty.

Aligned climate drivers and potential impacts on food security in Ethiopia in 2024

Adrian Cullis — 2023-12-07

El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) climate phenomena drive global seasonal rainfall anomalies. In Ethiopia, these anomalies are most pronounced when negative or positive ENSO and IOD phases align. The current El Niño and positive IOD phase alignment threatens heavy spring rains and flooding in Ethiopia’s southern pastoral areas and drought in the central and northern highlands.

Millions of people in the country already need humanitarian assistance because of multiple conflicts, drought and floods. Ethiopia can ill-afford a further spike in numbers. Given the strong association between such spikes and previous ENSO and IOD alignments, this policy brief recommends that the Ethiopia Disaster Risk Management Commission establish a specialist ENSO–IOD facility. Supported by its international partners, this facility can plan for the impact of a drought in 2024 in the central and northern highlands and estimate and resource the additional amount of humanitarian assistance required.

A rural green transition in the G5 Sahel

Steve Wiggins — 2023-12-07

The transition to a green agrifood system could create more than 8 million additional, full-time jobs in the countries of the G5 Sahel by 2030. The countries of the G5 Sahel need to make a green transition in their agricultural and rural economies to counter climate change and make farming and herding more sustainable.

Six areas of transition are already underway and are making a critical impact in greening the agrifood system: a transition to renewable rural energy, especially solar power; expanding small-scale irrigation; switching to climate-smart and environmentally sustainable agriculture; restoring common lands; creating fisheries; and recycling rural waste.

In some activities, such as soil and water conservation, the Sahel is already a world leader. In others, such as solar power, the Sahel has the potential to lead the world. Much of the change needed does not depend on the state: private and collective efforts will drive change. The public role is to support and facilitate, not direct. Conservation of fields, pastures and commons in the rural Sahel generates benefits far beyond the villages: international finance should help pay for investments.

This policy brief, and accompanying summary, is based on Green jobs in agrifood systems: setting a vision for youth in the Sahel , by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and ODI thanks to the contribution of the German Federal Ministry of Agriculture (BMEL).

Findings from field studies of post-harvest storage and processing in Afghanistan

Ihsanullah Ghafoori — 2023-12-07

Post-harvest storage and food processing have been largely overlooked in Afghanistan’s agricultural rehabilitation agenda since 2001, with limited investments focused on refrigerated facilities for urban markets rather than rural food security.

This study, conducted by SPARC and the Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit, engaged 47 households across 18 villages in Laghman, Herat, and Badakhshan provinces to document existing and improved storage practices.

Findings show that grain staples are typically stored with low losses, while perishable crops suffer high losses, compelling households to sell surpluses at harvest when prices are lowest and repurchase later at higher costs. Women play a critical but under-recognized role in post-harvest management.

Results highlight the need to prioritise improved storage for food security, design interventions sensitive to agro-ecological and social contexts, and ensure inclusive access for vulnerable groups. Expanding storage for smallholders must emphasise subsistence needs alongside market engagement.

Une transition verte rurale dans le G5 Sahel

Steve Wiggins — 2023-12-07

Cette note d’information présente des mesures concrètes que peuvent prendre les ministres du G5 Sahel, les agences d’aide, les bailleurs de fonds et les chercheurs pour favoriser une transition verte rurale et élargir les opportunités d’emploi pour les jeunes dans la région.

Building forward better

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2023-12-03

People living in places affected by fragility and/or violent conflict are among the most vulnerable in the world to climate change. In these situations, a natural hazard – such as a flood or a drought – can quickly trigger disasters and exacerbate protracted crises.

Individuals themselves cannot meaningfully be expected to adapt to climate change. What is needed is for actors in conflict-affected countries to work together to address the drivers of fragility, and enable peace, stability and systemic resilience – so that people have more options to manage challenges and embrace opportunities. We call this Building Forward Better.

Building Forward Better will require a transformation in the way humanitarian, development, peacebuilding, disaster risk management and climate adaptation actors work in fragile and conflict-affected settings. This Framing note argues for a new way of thinking about and delivering the climate agenda in fragile and conflict-affected situations: one in which programmes and investments by all actors are linked, layered and sequenced in such a way that they mutually reinforce and support each other, and are informed by a clear understanding of the drivers of conflict and climate risks.

The role of development finance institutions in addressing food security in vulnerable contexts

Alberto Lemma — 2023-11-20

Food security and economic development in fragile contexts are undermined by conflict, instability, and weak investment opportunities. This report examines the role of development finance institutions (DFIs) in 14 high‑risk countries (the “10+1” group) identified by the UK FCDO.

DFIs can support food security by raising productivity across economies or directly investing in agriculture and agribusiness. Yet only a small share of DFI funds reach these contexts, constrained by risk, scale, and transaction costs.

The study highlights opportunities in food value chains and transport infrastructure, while recommending blended finance, localised funds, and stronger conditions for investible enterprises.

How can development partners support food security in protracted crises?

Simon Levine — 2023-11-16

What does meaningful support to bolster food security look like in countries affected by conflict and protracted crises?

This brief offers five key lessons from Supporting Pastoralism and Agriculture in Recurrent and Protracted Crises' (SPARC) research in the Sahel, Syria and Yemen: mostly semi-arid areas subject to protracted crises and conflict, sometimes exacerbated by natural disasters, where food crises and food emergencies threaten.

Key insights include:

In most countries, domestic issues are more critical than external factors in determining food prices. This requires a shift of focus away from international commodity price increases and wars, towards domestic factors that determine food prices, such as local food production.
Support long-term food security with different solutions. There is no one-size-fits-all approach to bolstering the long-term food security of countries. When looking to build the long-term food security of countries, SPARC’s individual country studies of Somalia, Yemen and Ethiopia demonstrate how much local context matters, dominating any attempt to identify general patterns. Support markets and trade, even in protracted conflict. In protracted crises, households and local communities largely get by through their own ability to cope – rather than depending on outside help, despite commendable efforts by humanitarian agencies. As such, more effort should be directed towards what allows local economies to function.
Recognise the possibilities, but also the limits, of anticipatory action. Any hope of preventing crises relies on a realistic appreciation of what can and cannot be achieved by different anticipatory actions and the time horizons that apply. Expecting anticipatory assistance from humanitarian action to achieve broader development – such as developing new economic opportunities and more resilient livelihoods – is hopelessly unrealistic – and unfair on humanitarian agencies and their staff.
Overlap agendas on food security, poverty, resilience and climate change. Ending food insecurity requires a mix of instruments which tackle underlying, structural crises. Tackling these long-term drivers of food insecurity is also critical in the context of climate change, which is exacerbating threats faced by people already living in chronically food-insecure situations. Actors from different disciplines – poverty, resilience, crisis and climate change – must speak a common language, share common goals and sit round the same table. Moreover, aid actors need to have long-term strategies that support the long-term preferences of people facing crisis, and to ensure that efforts which help people meet their short-term needs fit coherently into longer-term plans to build climate resilience.

Climate-resilient development for Somalia

Manisha Gulati — 2023-10-06

Somalia’s designation as a fragile state by the World Bank underscores its acute vulnerability to climate extremes and long-term change. Despite this, Somalia receives disproportionately low levels of climate finance compared to other fragile contexts. Current adaptation priorities remain fragmented, focusing largely on short-term hazards rather than anticipating future shifts in temperature, rainfall, water supply, and livelihoods.

This technical report draws on climate projection analysis, risk assessment, and extensive stakeholder consultations to identify barriers and enablers for climate action. Findings highlight missed opportunities in accessing and effectively deploying bilateral and multilateral funding, while also pointing to emerging entry points for development, humanitarian, and government actors.

Strengthening institutional capacity within the Ministry of Environment and Climate Change, improving climate data acquisition through SWALIM, and enhancing coordination across partners and accredited agencies are critical steps. Aligning adaptation priorities with Somalia’s broader development agenda is essential for advancing climate-resilient pathways.

Gestion du risque climatique au Tchad

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2023-09-30

Les années 2050 sont marquées par une mousson qui pourrait être plus affectée par le changement climatique ; les années 2030 sont marquées par un horizon temporel déterminé pour les politiques existantes – à quoi le Tchad, un pays particulièrement vulnérable au changement climatique, pourrait-il être confronté dans les décennies à venir?

Avec de faibles niveaux de développement, une population principalement rurale dépendant des cultures (en grande partie pluviales) et de l'élevage, et une population en croissance rapide (gonflée par les réfugiés des pays voisins), le tout étant à l'origine des impacts climatiques actuels et des risques futurs liés au changement climatique, la vulnérabilité climatique du Tchad est susceptible de continuer à croître.

En compilant la couverture actuelle des services de base, nous évaluons les vulnérabilités et l'exposition au climat et nous les extrapolons aux années 2030 et 2050. En combinant ces scénarios avec les changements prévus en matière de température et de précipitations, nous identifions les risques climatiques futurs pour l'agriculture, l'élevage et les zones urbaines. Cet exposé qualitatif de haut niveau de certains des risques futurs liés au changement climatique au Tchad s'appuie sur des statistiques socio-économiques, la politique gouvernementale et la littérature – tant universitaire que les rapports d'agences humanitaires et de développement.

Notes techniques et politiques sur le financement climatique

Abdrahmane Wane — 2023-09-27

Les pays de l'Union économique et monétaire ouest-africaine (UEMOA) - Bénin, Burkina Faso, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinée-Bissau, Mali, Niger, Sénégal et Togo - restent parmi les nations les plus exposées aux effets du changement climatique. Ces pays sont également parmi les plus faibles émetteurs de CO2 au niveau mondial. Des investissements importants dans les mesures d'adaptation et d'atténuation du changement climatique sont nécessaires pour surmonter cette inégalité structurelle et pour équilibrer les financements requis par les pays de l'UEMOA avec les volumes disponibles et accessibles.

En s'appuyant sur les stratégies des bailleurs de fonds qui tendent à être étroitement liées à la vulnérabilité au changement climatique et à la fragilité des États, ce rapport, accompagné d'une synthèse, a procédé à une analyse différenciée des questions de financement climatique en se concentrant sur trois niveaux : l'ensemble de la région de l'UEMOA, les pays côtiers et les pays sahéliens de l'UEMOA.

Financing climate adaptation in fragile states

Adriana Quevedo — 2023-09-14

This policy brief highlights Somalia’s acute climate vulnerability and limited climate finance despite ongoing drought and humanitarian crises, outlining recommendations to improve access to and effectiveness of climate-related funding.

How can Africa manage the transboundary climate crises it faces?

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2023-08-14

Transboundary climate risks have the potential to set back economic development gains, jeopardise trade and food security and impact infrastructure investments in Africa. Previous SPARC research has found that African policymakers are already aware of and concerned by a number of transboundary climate risks. What are some examples of these risks, and how can they be managed? This policy brief, produced for the nineteenth ordinary session of the African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN) in August 2023, highlights five significant transboundary climate risks in Africa – biophysical, financial, trade, people-centred and geopolitical – that urgently need consideration for management.

The authors draw on real examples from countries across Africa to show how transboundary climate risks, and the ways in which they are handled, create significant impacts for other countries. The brief also provides some practical recommendations for how African regional economic communities and their Member States can work together to manage these risks, in keeping with existing climate policy frameworks and objectives. The policy brief was produced in collaboration with the African Group of Negotiators Experts Support (AGNES) and Adaptation Without Borders (AWB).

Participatory planning in Kenya’s drylands

Claire Bedelian — 2023-07-06

This policy brief outlines the Ward Development Planning model – a participatory planning approach focused on developing ward-level development plans in Kenya – and offers lessons and recommendations for scaling up participatory, locally grounded approaches to support resilience-focused development.

Causes of farmer-herder conflicts in Africa

Magda Nassef — 2023-07-06

Conflict between farmers and livestock herders in Africa has received much attention in recent years, with attendant concerns about increasing and intensifying levels of conflict. This systematic scoping review was based on an approach designed to minimise selection bias using transparent and reproducible methods.

The aim was to gain insights into the causes of farmer–herder conflict and uncover any trends and potential gaps in understanding. A second aim was to ascertain to what degree conflict is connected to land and natural resources and to what extent land tenure insecurity is cited as a cause of conflict and how this is discussed. A third aim was to understand to what degree and in what capacity women and youth are mentioned in research on farmer–herder conflict.

Farming after fighting

Steve Wiggins — 2023-07-06

Civil conflicts across the Global South have intensified since the 2010s, raising questions about how agriculture rebounds after prolonged violence. A review of six post‑conflict settings, Cambodia, Mozambique, Peru’s southern highlands, Rwanda, Sierra Leone and northern Uganda, shows that war inflicted severe losses on rural populations, destroying lives, assets, infrastructure and public services. Despite this, agricultural recovery was rapid in all cases except northern Uganda. Growth reflected both a rebound effect as farmers returned to abandoned land and sustained post‑conflict expansion, with production often surpassing pre‑war levels. Smallholders drove much of this growth, even where governments provided minimal support due to competing priorities and limited resources.

Causes des conflits entre agriculteurs et éleveurs en Afrique

Magda Nassef — 2023-07-06

Ce rapport présente les résultats d’un examen systématique de la recherche sur les conflits entre agriculteurs et éleveurs en Afrique, afin d’identifier les principaux facteurs de ces conflits ainsi que les lacunes de la prise en compte des femmes et des jeunes dans les études existantes.

SPARC research framework

2023-06-29

Published in 2023, this Research Framework guided SPARC interventions between 2023 and 2025.

Nigeria: Some land tenure insecurity issues in Hayin Ade and Wuro Bappate

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2023-04-12

SPARC and its partner the Fulbe Development and Cultural Organization (FUDECO) want to improve understanding of the challenges that pastoralists and agropastoralists view as most critical in their own words, how these challenges impact their lives and livelihoods, what coping and adaptive strategies they currently employ and what additional assistance they would like in order to improve their futures.

This issue brief examines land tenure insecurity in two Nigerian communities, Hayin Ade in Kaduna State and Wuro Alhaji Idrisa Bappate in Taraba State, showing how local dynamics – from illegal mining to land speculation – intersect with weak governance and legal awareness to threaten pastoral and agropastoral livelihoods.

Unravelling the knot

Kamran Hakiman — 2023-04-06

This issue brief examines the application of the SHARED framework, assessing both the enabling conditions that support its effective implementation and the constraints that limit its broader impact. By highlighting the interplay of contextual factors, the analysis provides insight into where the framework has achieved success and where structural or systemic challenges remain, offering a balanced perspective on its potential and limitations.

Anticipatory action in advance of ‘wicked crises’

Simon Levine — 2023-03-31

In 2020, the SPARC research programme convened panels of Somali farmers and pastoralists to examine how crisis‑affected communities engage in anticipatory action when faced with drought warnings. Focusing on Somaliland, Puntland, and the Middle Shabelle region, the study explored the timing of humanitarian strategies alongside the rationale behind local decision‑making earlier in the crisis trajectory.

Findings reveal that viable anticipatory actions were limited, constrained primarily by the lack of alternative strategies within the local economy. Communities often planned for average rainfall despite forecasts of poor rains, reflecting rational choices shaped by livelihood realities and information networks.

The report underscores that effective support requires long‑term investment in expanding local options, integrating trusted seasonal forecasting into planning, and recognising the diverse trajectories of crises and livelihoods. It cautions against singular anticipatory instruments or funding mechanisms in contexts of 'wicked crises', advocating instead for plural, flexible approaches that align with community realities.

Food prices in Mali and Sudan

Steve Wiggins — 2023-03-31

This study examines staple food price dynamics in Mali and Sudan between 2019 and mid‑2022, a period marked by global spikes in wheat, maize, oil, and fertiliser prices. Despite international pressures, findings show that domestic factors largely drove cereal price increases, which more than doubled in both countries.

In Mali, poor harvests due to low rainfall and conflict, compounded by the ECOWAS trade embargo restricting fertiliser supplies, pushed prices higher. In Sudan, extreme domestic inflation explained most of the rise. Coping strategies included dietary economising, cutting small luxuries, and increasing labour, while the poorest households resorted to wild foods and begging.

Public responses, such as government subsidies, cash transfers, food parcels, and nutrition interventions were limited relative to the hardship. Policy recommendations include expanding irrigation, adopting drought‑resistant crops, stabilising Sudan’s macroeconomy, exempting agricultural inputs from embargoes, and strengthening social protection. Addressing structural drivers is essential to mitigate vulnerability and ensure food security in fragile contexts.

Dynamism in the drylands

Alex Humphrey — 2023-01-31

Over the past four years, South Sudan has endured consecutive flooding that has submerged vast areas, displaced communities, and intensified food insecurity. Pastoralists, central to the country’s livelihoods, have been among the worst affected, facing widespread livestock loss, forced migration in search of pasture and markets, and escalating violence through cattle raiding and revenge attacks.

This report draws on two years of interviews with 60 pastoralist households to examine how herders are adapting to climate- and conflict-related shocks. Findings reveal that pastoralists demonstrate remarkable flexibility and resilience, yet face mounting uncertainty about the long-term viability of pastoralism in the drylands.

The study argues that aid interventions must align with pastoralists’ adaptive strategies, supporting their inherent capacity to navigate volatility. By centering pastoral voices, the report highlights pathways for more responsive and equitable support to dryland communities confronting climate and conflict crises.

Somalia: drought and rising costs take hold

Leigh Mayhew — 2023-01-18

The economic, environmental, political and social contexts at the local, national and regional levels are continually evolving, and regional to global events such as the economic repercussions of Covid-19 are being felt at the local level.

In this brief, we aimed to capture how pastoralists, agropastoralists and farmers are coping with and adapting their livelihoods to this dynamism.

The key messages are:

Inflation is affecting the ability of pastoralists, agropastoralists and farmers to afford basic food items and livelihood inputs. The economic impact on farming and pastoral livelihoods is having a knock-on effect for other economic activities, which depend on their trade.
Interviewees described actions that are predominately short-term coping and survival strategies, rather than long-term adaptation to mitigate shocks being experienced.
Whilst the accumulation of debt is part of economic life in Somalia, our interviews were unable to uncover if the current level of borrowing is beyond people’s means or what the long-term implications of this borrowing means for households. Answering these questions will be important for understanding household recovery.
A lack of violence in the communities interviewed should be noted for future lessons of mitigating future conflict risk. Despite the pressures that people are facing, community-based support and conflict resolution mechanisms are helping to manage tensions.

Transboundary climate risks to African dryland livestock economies

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2023-01-13

Pastoralism and the livestock sector are central to the economies of African dryland countries, contributing between 5% and 30% of national GDP through production and cross‑border trade. Rooted in mobility strategies that historically aligned with rainfall and vegetation, pastoral systems have long provided disaster‑resilient livelihoods, reducing resource degradation, fertilising soils, and safeguarding herds against drought, disease, and conflict.

Today, however, the adaptive capacity of pastoral groups and livestock value chains is increasingly constrained. Beyond climate change, non‑climate pressures—including urban expansion, agricultural encroachment, and mineral and fossil fuel exploration—fragment rangelands and disrupt traditional routes.

This brief examines how these intersecting drivers generate compounding transboundary climate risks (TCRs), from livestock disease outbreaks to trade disruptions and resource degradation. It further highlights how management options at local, national, and regional levels are shaped, and at times undermined, by contradictory socioeconomic, mobility, agricultural, adaptation, and resource governance policies.

Risques climatiques transfrontaliers pour les économies d’élevage dans les zones arides africaines

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2023-01-13

Le pastoralisme et le secteur de l'élevage, y compris le commerce transfrontalier d'animaux vivants et de produits d'origine animale, représentent entre 5 et 30 % du produit intérieur brut (PIB) national des pays d'Afrique arides. La production de bétail utilise un mélange de stratégies le long d'un continuum de mobilité, historiquement adopté pour s'adapter aux environnements des zones arides. Historiquement, les routes du bétail suivaient les pluies et la végétation. Ce mouvement réduisait le risque de dégradation des ressources, contribuait à la fertilisation des sols grâce au fumier et constituait un mécanisme de subsistance résistant aux catastrophes naturelles, grâce auquel les troupeaux étaient protégés de la sécheresse, des maladies et des conflits.

Pourtant, la capacité des différents groupes pastoraux et des points de la chaîne de valeur de l’élevage à s'adapter aux aléas du changement climatique qui se propagent au-delà des frontières est mise à mal par un certain nombre de changements non climatiques. Les parcours pastoraux et les routes du bétail au sein des pays et à travers ceux-ci sont de plus en plus empiétés et fragmentés par les villes, l'agriculture et l'exploration des minéraux et des combustibles fossiles. Cette note explore la manière dont ces facteurs et d'autres facteurs non climatiques se combinent au changement climatique pour générer des risques climatiques transfrontaliers (RCT) multiples et cumulatifs, allant des maladies du bétail aux perturbations du commerce en passant par la dégradation des ressources.

La note thématique souligne comment les options existantes pour la gestion des RCT aux niveaux local, national et régional sont à la fois aidées et entravées par des politiques socio-économiques, de mobilité humaine, d'agriculture, d'adaptation et de gestion des ressources naturelles parfois contradictoires aux niveaux sous-national, national et régional.

Innovation in governance

Kamran Hakiman — 2022-10-06

Building resilience among pastoralists and agro‑pastoralists in drylands requires navigating systemic challenges within fragile political systems. This report examines the Stakeholder Approach to Risk Informed and Evidence Based Decision Making (SHARED), a framework designed to integrate technical expertise with contextual knowledge of local political economy, society, and ecology. Applied since 2014 across Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali, Niger, and Somalia, SHARED emphasises inclusive, adaptive engagement to ensure decisions are technically sound, contextually appropriate, and locally legitimate.

Findings highlight that fragile and conflict‑affected environments benefit most from evidence‑based practices, yet resist simple adoption of external “best practices” due to weak institutions, climate pressures, and instability. SHARED demonstrates how multi‑stakeholder processes can shift political possibilities, support adaptive management, and embed evidence within local realities.

The study cautions that success depends not only on frameworks but on implementers’ responsiveness and motivation, underscoring the importance of process innovation for resilience in complex dryland contexts.

Livelihoods and markets in protracted conflict

Steve Wiggins — 2022-09-29

This evidence review examines the impacts of protracted conflict on livelihoods and food security across 11 countries and assesses the effectiveness of responses to economic and social harm in varying contexts.

Livelihoods, conflict and meditation

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2022-09-29

This report from SPARC and the Fulbe Development and Cultural Organization (FUDECO) provides a snapshot of livelihood challenges and conflict dynamics in two Nigerian communities, showing how land pressure, grazing restrictions, illegal mining and insecurity are affecting pastoral and agropastoral livelihoods in the aftermath of COVID-19.

Key findings

Inequitable access to land and resources is continuing to lead to land disputes across interview sites. Population growth, government policy favouring crop production, grazing bans, and shifts towards more agropastoral livelihoods were all seen as reasons for a decline in suitable grazing areas.
In Wuro Bappate, increasing illegal mining activity is also contributing to land scarcity. While understanding who is behind this activity and the extent of its impacts warrants further exploration, illegal mining is taking place on grazing land, resulting in injuries to livestock and further land disputes.
In Hayin Ade, the decline in land for grazing, as more area is farmed, is forcing pastoralists to move their cattle further afield, exposing them to the increased risk of banditry in neighbouring states. Interviewees reveal that family members had been kidnapped and experienced cattle raiding en route to reserves.
Although interviewees do not describe high levels of conflict, its historical legacy continues to disrupt livelihoods. In Wuro Bappate, the imposition of grazing bans by the government, as a measure to stop land conflicts, is limiting the movements of pastoralists and placing pressure on the grazing areas that remain.
Both interview sites have seen the establishment of vigilante groups to protect property and livestock. The establishment of the Yan Sakai in Hayin Ade received a mixed response from interviewees, with some attributing the fall in incidents of cattle raiding to the group’s formation and others criticising its conduct. In Wuro Bappate, communities have established a small vigilante group in response to attacks from farmers.

Livelihoods, conflict and mediation

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2022-09-29

This longitudinal study explores how pastoralist and agropastoralist households in Somalia experience and adapt to disputes, conflict, and non-conflict shocks. Rather than predefining conflict types, interviews allowed participants to describe disputes encountered over the past five years, including perceived causes and perpetrators.

Findings reveal that consecutive shocks, such as failed rainy seasons, drought, flooding, and Covid-19’s economic repercussions, have eroded crop production, fodder availability, and livestock value, compounding pressures from farmland expansion and reduced grazing areas. These dynamics fuel disputes between farmers and herders, while long-running clan tensions and the presence of armed groups continue to restrict mobility and security.

Despite persistent challenges, interviewees expressed confidence in community-led mediation and dispute resolution, with clan elders and local administrations playing key roles. The study highlights how shocks intersect with conflict dynamics, shaping household livelihood strategies and underscore the importance of adaptive, locally grounded conflict-resolution mechanisms.

Climate adaptation investments in conflict-affected states

Adriana Quevedo — 2022-08-22

This paper aims to influence policy-makers in the climate, humanitarian and peace-building communities of practice, as well as country governments that are facing fragile and conflict-affected situations, to re-think the risks and increase financial allocations to the least developed country (LDC) sub-group of fragile and conflict-affected states (FCAS) that are most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.

Throughout this policy brief it is key to note current understandings of the interplay between climate change and conflict. Climate change can undermine efforts to secure peace and stability, with climate hazards not only directly impacting people and their livelihoods, but also indirectly exacerbating existing conflict and fragility, and in turn creating new conflicts. However, this is highly context specific and poses uncertainties in attribution. Conflict and fragility can increase people’s vulnerability to climate change and constrain their ability to adapt. For example, livelihoods can be lost, reducing the affordability of adaptation, and people often migrate to areas that are more vulnerable to climate risks.

The type and status of conflict and fragility affects the degree of people’s intersecting vulnerabilities to other threats, with the role of conflict as a driver of vulnerability to climate change possibly becoming more important than the role of climate change as a mediating factor in conflict in many contexts. Covid-19 has amplified people’s vulnerabilities in FCAS, limiting people’s access to adequate public services and affecting livelihoods. Therefore there is a need for financial providers of climate-related activities in FCAS to acknowledge the complexities behind localised interplay from the threats of conflict and climate change, and therefore take risk-informed approaches.

Gender in agricultural and pastoral livelihoods in SPARC countries in sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East

Katherine Vincent — 2022-07-06

This report presents the results of a review of gender-related findings in research published over the past five years on agricultural and pastoral livelihoods in SPARC focus countries: Burkina Faso, Chad, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, Syria, Uganda and Yemen.

The review of 170 papers aims to characterise the landscape of research, taking into account evidence of geographical variation; the ways in which gender is approached through studies; and the thematic range of knowledge relating to gender and agricultural and pastoral livelihoods.

Obstacles to and opportunities for anticipatory action in Somalia

Lena Weingärtner — 2022-05-19

With increasing interest in anticipatory action, it is becoming more important to understand what can be done, and when, to reduce or mitigate expected crisis impacts. The longitudinal learning by SPARC aims to inform that analysis by understanding better what information people have about which challenges may be coming their way, when they use various strategies to prepare for possible difficulties, and what constraints they face at different times.

This SPARC brief shares learning from regular interviews with a panel of households, including pastoralists, farmers and small-business owners in Somaliland, Puntland and South-Central Somalia. Initially, interviewing and analysis focused on the impacts of Covid-19 on Somali pastoralists and farmers in early 2020. Following warnings in late 2020 of a likely drought, the focus of interviewing shifted to how people were seeing the threat of drought and what they were doing as a result, to better understand the implications for anticipatory action. Respondents included pastoralists, agropastoralists, and farmers in rural and urban areas in Burao (Togdheer region, Somaliland), Galkayo (Mudug region, Puntland) and Jowhar (Middle Shebelle region, South West state).

The paper highlights these key findings:

The national emergency reached at the end of 2021 developed slowly as several shocks combined - locusts, the economic impacts of Covid-19 and three successive poor rainy seasons. Other more local shocks, such as riverine floods, exacerbated difficulties further;
Community networks are critical conduits of early warning information, particularly about floods and locusts. They also supported individual and joint actions to anticipate and respond to shocks;
People with different livelihood strategies (including pastoralists, agropastoralists and farmers) took different measures in an attempt to counter these threats. The timing of such actions varied in different parts of the country making it harder to design and deliver support for people’s anticipatory actions;
Aid actors engaging in anticipatory action should support and establish communication with communities’ own anticipatory initiatives before crises threaten, to ensure assistance can be relevant and timely.

Making the concept of resilience in the Sahel more useful

Simon Levine — 2022-04-21

This issue brief critiques how ‘resilience’ is often discussed and operationalised in the Sahel, arguing that abstract language and technical framing obscure real challenges. It calls for grounded, problem-driven analysis and cross-sector collaboration to make resilience efforts more effective and scalable.

Key messages:

Most of the people who need to contribute to supporting resilience in the Sahel do not use the label ‘resilience’ for theirwork.
Creating the policies and investments needed is a huge and collective endeavour, involving economists, agriculturalscientists, sociologists, market and health specialists, experts in social protection and humanitarian action, and manyothers. Each national government is responsible for the vision of what would be a sustainable economy and viablelivelihoods in their country.
A common language is needed for policy makers across the different sectors to understand how different contributions combine and what should be prioritised. The current resilience discourse is highly insular and is preventingcommunication with all the efforts to build resilience that do not use that label.
The dominance of resilience-speak has also divorced the resilience sector from the real world in several critical ways.The problem identification (‘more droughts, more vulnerability’) does not relate to the facts; the problem analysisis disconnected from concrete issues in people’s lives; and M&E in resilience language is preventing lessons beinglearned about what actually helps people.
Although investments in resilience are promoted as a way of reducing future humanitarian need, in practice the twoexist in different silos with no common points of reference, metrics or language.
Resilience frameworks and resilience lenses are not the problem. They have a lot to contribute, but they have to beused in radically different ways. They need to be put at the service of collective efforts to improve people’s lives, ratherthan dictating the terms of the efforts of a discrete resilience clique.

Exploring the conflict blind spots in climate adaptation finance in the Sahel and Horn of Africa

Adriana Quevedo — 2022-04-21

This report contributes to SPARC’s mission of strengthening resilience among pastoralists, agro-pastoralists, and farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East. It examines donor approaches to adaptation finance in fragile and conflict-affected situations (FCSs) across the Sahel and East Africa, focusing on whether programmes have been conflict-sensitive and what barriers and enablers shape financing in these contexts.

Drawing on case studies from Mali, Somalia, and Sudan, the analysis finds limited evidence of conflict-sensitive practice. Donor strategies often avoid militia-controlled or highly insecure areas, reflecting risk perceptions rather than proactive conflict analysis. Programme proposals rarely integrated conflict dynamics into design or implementation, focusing instead on operational hazards and “security awareness.”

The study highlights persistent gaps in linking climate change to conflict and fragility, alongside weak incentives to build expertise at this nexus. Findings underscore the need for stronger donor strategies, policies, and human resource capacity to embed conflict sensitivity in adaptation finance.

Impacts of war on food prices and food security in potentially vulnerable countries

Steve Wiggins — 2022-04-19

This policy brief explores how surging global prices for fuel, fertiliser and staple crops – triggered by the war in Ukraine – are compounding existing food security risks in Kenya, Mali, Sudan and Yemen, and reflects on lessons from previous crises.

Innovations for pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in fragile and conflict-affected settings

Christabell Makokha — 2022-01-27

This scoping paper reviews 38 innovations in fragile and conflict-affected settings, to analyse: what products, processes and services are offered; who is innovating and where; how they are distributed; and the business models and partnerships that enable these innovations.

Financing livestock trade

Rupsha Banerjee — 2022-01-18

Africa’s drylands support extensive pastoral and agro‑pastoral systems, with herders marketing livestock through complex chains that connect rural rangelands to urban and export markets.

This report examines the financing of livestock marketing in Kenya, Mali, and Somalia, focusing on traders’ use of formal financial services, such as savings, payments, credit, and insurance, over the past two decades.

Findings reveal that formal finance remains limited in rural drylands, with traders relying primarily on personal savings, family support, and reinvested profits to sustain working capital. Informal lending within marketing chains and social networks continues to play a central role, while mobile payment systems stand out as the most significant innovation, simplifying transfers and expanding access to financial transactions. Few traders access loans from formal intermediaries, underscoring persistent barriers to rural financial inclusion.

The study highlights implications for policy and research on strengthening financial systems to support resilient livestock economies in Africa’s drylands.

A review of tenure and governance in the pastoral lands of East and West Africa

Fiona Flintan — 2021-12-31

Over the past two decades, pastoral lands in Africa have faced mounting pressures from competing land uses, resource scarcity, and governance challenges. Pastoralists and their tenure systems are increasingly unable to withstand these pressures, leading to rangeland fragmentation, reduced mobility, and the loss of critical grazing areas near water sources. These dynamics weaken pastoral production systems, heighten vulnerability to shocks such as droughts, and increase the likelihood of violent conflict over land.

This report examines the persistence of land tenure insecurity in pastoral areas, outlining the distinctive characteristics of pastoral tenure systems and the difficulties of formalising them within broader governance frameworks. It reviews current trends in land tenure and governance, including government initiatives to safeguard pastoral lands and the strategies pastoralists employ to access land despite insecurity.

The analysis highlights the disproportionate impact of losing linchpin resources, the cyclical degradation of accessible rangelands, and the structural barriers to anticipatory adaptation. The report concludes with reflections on research gaps and pathways forward, emphasising the need for long‑term, context‑sensitive interventions that strengthen tenure security and support pastoral resilience.

Une revue de la tenure et de la gouvernance des terres pastorales en Afrique de l’Est et de l’Ouest

Fiona Flintan — 2021-12-31

Cet examen de données probantes analyse comment la pression croissante sur les terres pastorales en Afrique de l’Est et de l’Ouest fragilise les systèmes fonciers, entraînant une réduction de l’accès aux terres, une dégradation des ressources et une escalade des conflits. Elle met en évidence comment les pasteurs développent des stratégies hybrides pour sécuriser les terres et s’adapter à ces défis.

Living with compounding livelihood shocks

Maha Elsamahi — 2021-11-24

This report is one in a series of SPARC publications that will present longitudinal findings from qualitative interviews with pastoral, agricultural and agropastoral participants in Nigeria, South Sudan and Somalia. The specific topics explored in each round of interviewing will change over the lifetime of the SPARC programme to address emerging learning priorities. However, this report, and the study more generally, is guided by three overarching research questions: What are the shocks currently affecting the livelihoods of agropastoral populations in Nigeria? In what ways are people adapting their livelihoods in the face of the compounding shocks and stresses, including Covid-19, and what types of livelihood adaptations are proving more or less successful? What types of formal and informal support or factors are helping people to manage the impacts of major shocks and stresses on their livelihoods?

The report finds that the challenges agropastoralists in Nigeria’s drylands face are varied. If unaddressed, compounding shocks, including but not limited to the Covid-19 crisis, threaten to undermine the long-term resilience of these agropastoral livelihoods. In many cases, shocks affect people within the same community in dramatically different ways. The perception that aid interventions are singularly focused on curtailing the spread of Covid-19, to the exclusion of other longstanding livelihood challenges, risks driving resentment and scepticism towards aid actors within targeted communities. In response to these compounding shocks, agropastoralists in Nigeria’s drylands are turning to an array of coping and adaptive strategies. However, only time will tell if these strategies are short-term coping mechanisms to weather unprecedented volatility, or a signifier of more permanent adaptation changes to rural livelihoods in Nigeria.

Understanding the role of anticipatory action in Somalia

Simon Levine — 2021-10-29

Over the past couple of decades, more attention has been paid in the humanitarian sector to the possibility of giving assistance based on the expectation that a crisis is coming, but before humanitarian needs are severe. Under various labels – including anticipatory action, early warning or early response, forecast-based action and livelihood protection – interest is being pushed by organisations such as the Start Network, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies and the Red Cross Red Crescent Climate Centre, and UN agencies.

We prefer to use the term ‘anticipatory action’ because people facing possible crises anticipate and act. The discussion within the aid sector is better if it is not exclusively inward-looking, about the aid, but can instead focus on what everyone – affected farmers, pastoralists, businesses, local and central government, service providers and aid actors – could do with sensible anticipation and forward planning.

SPARC has already established a panel of households for regular interviews in Somalia, including Somaliland and Puntland. Because there were forecasts of poor first rains in 2021 in parts of the Horn of Africa, following on from poor second rains in 2020, the risk of a drought crisis was heightened. This opened a window of opportunity for a real-time learning exercise that could be useful for the future design of anticipatory action. By following farmers, pastoralists and traders throughout the rainy season and beyond, we aim to answer the following questions:

As shocks approach and as crises develop, what do (different) people know – about the future risk, its potential impacts and possible mitigating strategies?
What are their objectives at different times, given what they know (or what they think they know)?
What would they like to be able to do to avoid or mitigate the predicted problems?
What are their constraints to taking action? How and when could these constraints be removed?

Transboundary climate and adaptation risks in Africa

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2021-10-26

This report examines how African policy-makers and experts perceive transboundary climate change and adaptation risks (TCARs) with potential multi-country and regional consequences. TCARs arise from climate impacts that cross borders, adaptation decisions in one country affecting others, or mitigation actions constraining adaptation options elsewhere. Pathways of risk transmission include biophysical impacts on ecosystems and resources, financial flows and investment patterns, trade in climate-sensitive goods, cross-border human mobility, and geopolitical dynamics around sovereignty and cooperation.

Through surveys and interviews, SPARC assessed perceptions of 24 TCARs, drawn from national and regional policy frameworks, rating their likelihood within the next decade and severity if realised. Findings highlight the urgent need to strengthen coordination through Regional Economic Communities and align these with African Union agencies and frameworks. Without robust regional implementation, nations remain ill-equipped to manage risks that transcend boundaries. Accompanying infographics illustrate triggers, pathways, and perceptions of TCARs.

Risques transfrontaliers liés au climat et à l’adaptation en Afrique

Sarah Opitz-Stapleton — 2021-10-26

Ce rapport documente la manière dont les décideurs et experts africains perçoivent les risques liés au changement climatique et à l’adaptation qui sont susceptibles d’avoir des répercussions, allant au-delà des frontières nationales, jusqu’à l’échelle régionale.

Resilient generation

Mairi Dupar — 2021-09-30

This issue brief summarises key findings and recommendations from the research report ' Resilient Generation: supporting young people’s prospects for decent work in the drylands of east and west Africa '.

Key messages from the brief include:

The ‘Resilient Generation’ report reviews opportunities available for investment and programmes to enhance young people’s readiness and prospects for decent work in the drylands of east and west Africa;
Pastoralism traditionally has been the dominant livelihood in the drylands of east and west Africa. Pastoralism and rural livelihoods are highly exposed to climate variability and change. In this context, ‘decent work’ now and in the future will be defined as being responsive to climate change, as well as providing a secure and reliable income;
There is a large gap in programme interventions that address the nexus of youth, climate, agriculture and pastoralism, and decent work. This provides government and practitioners with a tremendous opportunity to do more programming at this nexus and to do it well;
There are valuable operational lessons on how to improve the relevance of education, vocational training, and transitions to decent work, arising from the few nexus programmes that have been evaluated;
It is important to expand the narrative around young people’s livelihood options in drylands, within and beyond agriculture and pastoralism, to encompass a wide suite of decent jobs in climate-adaptive, low-carbon fields. Such work must underpin economic growth in these regions. As investments in infrastructure and markets shift in response to climate science, climate realities and commitments to the Paris Agreement so, too, must investments in young workers’ skills, knowledge and opportunities, to keep pace.

Resilient generation

Mairi Dupar — 2021-09-30

Africa’s east and west regions have some of the youngest populations globally, with under‑18s comprising nearly half of residents. While this demographic shift offers potential for labour markets, it also presents challenges in creating decent, climate‑resilient livelihoods, particularly in rural drylands.

These arid and semi‑arid areas face high climate variability, weak institutions, poor infrastructure, and limited market access, yet they are rich in cultural diversity and traditional knowledge. Climate change, conflict, and other shocks exacerbate risks for youth employment.

Despite opportunities in agriculture, pastoralism, renewable energy, tourism, and green technologies, few policies or programmes have targeted education, skills, and employment support for dryland youth. Gender, age, poverty, and intersecting identities further shape access to resources and opportunities.

Focusing on Ethiopia, Nigeria, South Sudan, Somalia, Sudan, and Mali, this report reviews current livelihood prospects, identifies research gaps, and recommends inclusive, gender‑responsive strategies to broaden opportunity windows for decent work in fragile dryland contexts.

Exploring the conflict blind spots in climate adaptation finance

Yue Cao — 2021-09-30

This report investigates whether and how climate adaptation programmes have incorporated conflict sensitivity in fragile and conflict-affected situations (FCSs). It identifies two major “conflict blind spots” in adaptation finance: the limited integration of conflict risk into programme design and the barriers to scaling finance in volatile contexts.

Drawing on donor approaches in the Sahel and Horn of Africa, and case studies from Mali, Somalia, and Sudan, the analysis highlights persistent gaps in linking climate change to conflict and fragility.

Findings reveal insufficient donor strategies, limited expertise, and weak incentives to cultivate capacity at the climate–conflict nexus. Recommendations include embedding conflict sensitivity across donor policies and guidance, strengthening inclusive local participation, and adopting flexible operational protocols to respond to unforeseen events.

To expand adaptation finance in FCSs, the report calls for improved donor coordination, revised modalities, stronger public financial management, and tailored access to multilateral climate funds.

Génération résiliente : soutenir les perspectives de travail décent pour les jeunes dans les zones arides d’Afrique de l’Est et de l’Ouest

Mairi Dupar — 2021-09-30

Cette note d’information complémentaire résume les résultats du rapport Génération résiliente, en soulignant la nécessité de programmes plus intégrés à l’intersection de la jeunesse, du climat et des moyens de subsistance dans les zones arides d’Afrique de l’Est et de l’Ouest.

Messages clés

Les jeunes sont largement majoritaires au sein des populations des pays est et ouest-africains. Bien que cela offre une aubaine pour les marchés du travail, il présente également des défis pour les gouvernements et les agences de développement désireux de fournir aux jeunes des opportunités génératrices de revenus décentes et sérieuses.

Il existe un potentiel considérable d’investissement dans des avenirs durables et résilients face au changement climatique dans les économies et les environnements des zones arides.

Pour assurer l’efficacité des investissements, et pour pouvoir récolter les fruits économiques et environnementaux à l’échelle locale et régionale, il faudra établir un dialogue beaucoup plus large et ouvert avec les jeunes dans toute leur diversité : femmes, hommes, et ceux présentant différents handicaps et aptitudes, entre autres traits. Plus précisément, il y a des besoins importants et non satisfaits (et des occasions) d’investissement dans une éducation, des formations professionnelles et techniques, et des transitions vers un travail décent pour les jeunes des zones arides qui soient intelligentes face au changement climatique et plus pertinentes à l’échelle locale. Cela concerne tout particulièrement les jeunes issus de communautés pastorales, dont l’accès aux services d’éducation et de formation a été très insuffisant jusqu’ici.

Les agences de développement et les autres acteurs travaillant dans les zones arides devraient chercher intentionnellement à consulter, établir des partenariats avec, et soutenir le leadership et le libre arbitre decisionnel des jeunes, en particulier ceux issus de milieux pastoraux.

Stabilising the Sahel

Catherine Simonet — 2021-07-21

The Sahelian region has a growing focus for the international development community as it tries to address instability, violent extremism and forced displacement in countries including Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso.

Livestock mobility and trade can strengthen regional integration and are the basis of resilience to climate and conflict-related crises. Livestock markets in these countries are well integrated at national and regional levels.

Production areas in Mali and Niger are essential to the regional market, which is relatively resilient to conflict dynamics. However, climate and conflict affect livestock prices, and shocks can negatively affect communities and national economies. Strengthening the regional livestock sector and enabling environment has the potential to deliver sustainable outcomes for food security, economic development and stability.

This policy brief ‘Stabilising the Sahel: Livestock as a driver of regional integration’ recommends that to maximise positive and sustainable impact, and avoid unintended outcomes, policy makers and practitioners must take into account two fundamental characteristics of the Sahelian region when planning and implementing interventions.

These are: Regional integration is key to economic development and political stability; Pastoralism and agro-pastoralism are major livelihoods and economic activities that strengthen regional integration through the movement and trade of livestock.

Policies and investments that reinforce these related processes can support resilience and stability in the Sahel and West Africa. While discourse is growing around herder–farmer conflict as one of the main causes of insecurity in the Sahel, in reality, the interactions between intercommunal, natural-resource-based conflict and state insecurity and extremism are difficult to untangle. Yet the importance of agro-pastoralism for economic development in the region is clear.

Policymakers and practitioners need a better understanding of the current crisis to address the complex challenges facing the Sahel. This analysis confirms that this is possible using existing information. It outlines specific evidence-based actions and investments that can improve the resilience of livestock markets in the region to climate and conflict shocks, consequently improving their contribution to livelihoods, food security and the regional economy.

These policy recommendations are: Strengthening regional early warning systems; Development of public–private partnerships for livestock insurance; Application of transhumance regulations; Climate-resilient livestock transformation; Expanding initiatives to harmonise data collection and market monitoring systems.

Stabiliser le Sahel

Catherine Simonet — 2021-07-21

Cette note d’information explique comment le renforcement des marchés du bétail au Sahel peut accroître la résilience face aux chocs climatiques et sécuritaires, en soutenant les moyens de subsistance, la sécurité alimentaire et l’intégration régionale dans des pays comme le Mali, le Niger et le Burkina Faso.

Principales conclusions:

La région du Sahel est une région d’intérêt grandissant pour la communauté internationale, soucieuse de traiter les causes profondes de l’instabilité, de l’extrémisme violent et des déplacements forcés dans les pays de la région y compris au Mali, Niger et Burkina Faso.
L’intégration régionale est clé pour le développement économique et la stabilité politique au Sahel. La mobilité du bétail et le commerce renforcent l’intégration régionale et sont la base de la résilience face aux crises liées au climat et au conflit.
Les marchés de bétail sont bien intégrés aux niveaux nationaux et régionaux. Les zones de productions au Mali et au Niger sont essentielles pour le marché régional qui dans l’ensemble est relativement résilient face aux dynamiques de conflit. Néanmoins le climat et le conflit affectent les prix du bétail, et les chocs peuvent avoir une incidence négative sur les communautés et les économies nationales.
Renforcer le secteur de l’élevage au niveau régional et soutenir un environnement favorable peuvent apporter des résultats durables pour la sécurité alimentaire, le développement économique et la stabilité. Il y a plusieurs options possibles pour arriver à cela, y compris une infrastructure modernisée, une amélioration du marketing et de la production de fourrage et des services financiers adaptés/sur mesure tels que l’assurance.

Impacts of disruptions to livestock marketing in Sudan

Alex Humphrey — 2021-07-15

This report examines how the 2020 Hajj suspension affected low-income herders and livestock traders in Sudan. It draws on interviews and literature to explore export disruptions and options for mitigating future shocks.

Conflict in the time of Covid-19

Leigh Mayhew — 2021-05-20

How have Covid-19 and lockdown measures affected the social relationships of farmers and pastoralists in the conflict-affected Nigerian states of Adamawa, Benue, Kaduna, Kogi and Plateau? What, if any, changes in social cohesion and conflict have these farmers and pastoralists had to deal with against the backdrop of pandemic control measures and the other shocks they routinely face? These were among the questions that SPARC asked farmers and herders in Adamawa, Benue, Kaduna, Kogi and Plateau to gain some insight into their experiences of social cohesion and conflict since April 2020.

This brief highlights how the activities of armed and vigilante groups changed during the pandemic; farmer and pastoralist perceptions of government pandemic response measures and aid, and how pandemic measures impacted social relationships within agro-pastoral and pastoral communities.

Our findings highlight that: Farmers and pastoralists largely reported that Covid-19 did not create new social, inter-ethnic or inter-group tensions. Where conflict was taking place, it had existed before the pandemic and was not perceived to have increased or decreased specifically due to pandemic measures; Farmers and herders stated that longstanding feelings of land tenure disadvantage and ethnic tension, and/or conflict mediation efforts, were more important in shaping conflict than the shock (e.g. Covid-19) itself. These interim findings provide valuable insight for policymakers, donors and aid actors seeking to reduce conflict risk, including how: Governmental organisations, government and donors can more successfully reduce conflict risk regardless of shock by understanding background conflict contexts and supporting livelihoods, land tenure clarification and conflict mediation; Aid actors need steady approaches to conflict mediation that work to address longstanding concerns and bolster local mediation efforts, not reactive approaches.

Rapid assessment of the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic

2021-04-14

In late 2020, Somalia faced overlapping hazards. Severe flooding, the worst locust plague in 70 years, and the Covid‑19 pandemic that compounded risks to livelihoods and food security.

The pandemic disrupted livestock exports, reduced remittance flows, and curtailed religious gatherings, including the Hajj, which traditionally drives demand for millions of live animals from Somalia to the Middle East. With Saudi Arabia limiting pilgrims to fewer than 11,000, the need for nearly three million imported animals vanished, striking at the heart of Somalia’s largely informal and unregulated livestock trade.

This rapid assessment, based on interviews and focus group discussions, explores the impact of restricted Hajj 2020 on Somali pastoralists and traders. Findings highlight vulnerabilities in export-dependent systems and the cascading effects on household resilience and child malnutrition.

The study concludes with recommendations for short-, medium-, and long-term programming and investment to strengthen Somalia’s livestock economy and food security.

Évaluation rapide de l’impact de la pandémie de COVID-19

2021-04-14

Ce rapport évalue l’impact des restrictions du Hajj de 2020 sur les exportations de bétail de la Somalie, en montrant comment la perte d’un marché majeur, dans un contexte de crises multiples, a révélé la fragilité de son économie largement informelle et dépendante de l’élevage.